REESE  LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
Deceived       J^O^^c.          > 
ion  No.  /£  fa  $  J/.  .   Class  No. 


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CRUDE  RUBBER 


AND 


COMPOUNDING  INGREDIENTS 


A  TEXT-BOOK  OF 
RUBBER   MANUFACTURE 


BY  HENRY  C.  PEARSON 

,.\ 

Editor  of  The  India  Rubber  World 


NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 

The  India  Rubber  Publishing  Company 

1899 


COPYRIGHT,  1899,  BY  HENRY  C.  PEARSON. 


To  my  friend  and  partner, 

JOHN  ROBERTSON  DUNLAP, 

In  token   of  warm   personal  regard  and  high  appre- 
ciation of  his  brilliant  and  sterling 
qualities, 

THIS    BOOK    IS    DEDICATED. 


6  PREFACE. 

does  not  materialize,  the  knowledge  of  the  scope  of  the  substi- 
tutes already  known  will  be  so  increased  that  their  intelligent  use 
will  be  greatly  amplified. 

In  the  compilation  of  this  book  free  use  has  been  made  of 
English,  German,  and  French  standard  technical  works  as  well  as 
of  technical  journals,  such  as  The  India  Rubber  World,  The  India- 
Rubber  and  Gutta-Percha  Trades  Journal,  the  Gummi-Zeitung, 
The  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  and  others. 

The  author  takes  pleasure  in  acknowledging  his  indebted- 
ness for  helpful  suggestions  to  skilled  manufacturers  and  super- 
intendents in  both  America  and  Europe,  and  to  the  following  dis- 
tinguished writers  on  rubber  topics :  P.  G.  W.  Typke,  F.  C.  S. ;  G. 
S.  Jenman,  Government  Botanist  and  Superintendent  of  the  Bo- 
tanic Gardens,  Demerara ;  William  Thompson,  F.  R.  S.  E. ;  H. 
Grimshaw,  F.  C.  S. ;  W.  Lascelles- Scott,  F.  R.  M.  S.,  M.  S.  C.  I. ; 
Richard  Gerner,  M.  E. ;  Dr.  C.  Purcell  Taylor,  Thomas  Bolas,  F. 
C.  S.,  F.  I.  C.;  Professor  D.  E.  Hughes,  F.  R.  S. ;  Messrs.  Hein- 
zerling  and  Pahl,  Berlin;  Granville  H.  Sharpe,  F.  C.  S.;  Carl  Otto 
Weber,  Ph.  D. ;  A.  Camille,  J.  H.  Hart,  Superintendent  Botanic 
Gardens  of  Trinidad;  Dr.  D.  Morris,  M.  A.,  C.  M.  G.,  Commis- 
sioner of  the  Imperial  Agricultural  Department  for  the  West  In- 
dies; the  late  Dr.  Eugene  F.  A.  Obach,  F.  I.  C.,  F.  C.  S.,  M.  E. 
E.  E. ;  Professor  F.  A.  C.  Perrine,  D.  Sc.,  and  many  others. 

I  also  wish  to  express  my  appreciation  of  the  valuable  assis- 
tance given  me  on  the  chapters  devoted  to  crude  India-rubber 
and  Gutta-percha,  and  the  assistance  in  editing  and  revising  other 
portions,  by  my  associate  editor  on  The  India  Rubber  World,  Mr. 
Hawthorne  Hill. 

Boston,  June,  1899.  HENRY  C.  PEARSON. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Grades  of  Crude  Rubber,  Sources  of  Supply,  and  Physical  Charac- 
teristics ;  Para,  Central,  African,  and  East  Indian  Gums  ;  Ori- 
gin of  Trade  Names  ;  Botanical  Details 


CHAPTER  II. 

Some  Little  Known  Rubbers  and  Bastard  or  Pseudo  Gums  ;  Possi- 
bility of  Development  of  their  Use  in  the  Factory 24 

CHAPTER  III. 

—  (i)  Divisions  in  Rubber  Manufacture  and  Primary  Processes  in 
Manipulating  the  Gum.  (2)  The  Washing,  Mixing,  and  Calen- 
dering of  Rubber ;  Knowledge  of  Gathering  Processes  Essen- 
tial to  Intelligent  Manipulation  in  Manufacture 34 

CHAPTER  IV. 

_  Vulcanizing  Ingredients  and  Processes ;   Sulphur,  Antimony,  Sul- 
phides, and  Other  Materials  Used 49 

CHAPTER  V. 

Fillers  and  Other  Ingredients   Used  in    Dry  Mixing  in   Rubber 
Compounds;    Sources,    Properties,    and  Uses  of  the  Various 

Materials.  .  60 


CHAPTER  VI. 

(i)  Substitutes  for  India-rubber  and  Gutta-percha.  (2)  Substitutes 
for  Hard  Rubber  and  Gutta-percha.  (3)  Celluloid  and  Cellu- 
lose Products.  (4)  Miscellaneous  Substitutes  and  Compounds  ; 
History  of  their  Use.  and  Description  of  their  Properties 87 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  VII. 

_  Resins,  Balsams,   Gums,   Earth  Waxes,  and  Gum-like  Substances      • 

Used  in  Rubber  Compounding 115 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

-  Coloring  Matters.    Reds,  Blacks,  Yellows,  Greens,  Blues,  and  Other 

Colors  in  Hard  and  Soft  Rubber 133 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Acids,  Alkalies,  and  Their  Derivatives  Used  in  the  Rubber  Manu- 
facture         149 

CHAPTER  X. 

Vegetable,  Mineral,  and  Animal  Oils  Used  in  Rubber  Compounds 

and  Solutions. . .  168 


CHAPTER  XI. 

Solvents  Used  in  India-rubber  Proofing  and  Cementing  and  in 
Commercial  Cements ;  Their  Origin,  Properties,  and  Methods 
of  Use. .  181 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Miscellaneous  Processes  and  Compounds  for  Use  in  the  Rubber  Fac- 
tory ;    Waterproofing  Compounds 195 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

Physical  Tests  and  Methods  of  Analysis  of  Crude  Rubber ;  Specific 
Gravity;  Analysis  of  Vulcanized  Rubber;  Solubility  and 
Permeability  of  Rubber ;  Cravenetting ;  Deodorizatian  ;  De- 
terioration   215 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

Gutta-percha:  Its  Sources,  Properties,  Manipulation,  and  Uses; 
Components  of  Gutta-percha ;  Vulcanization ;  Gutta-percha  in 
Compounds  ;  Methods  of  Analysis 228 


CHAPTER    I. 

GRADES    OF    CRUDE    RUBBER,    SOURCES    OF    SUPPLY,    AND    PHYSICAL 

CHARACTERISTICS. 

CAOUTCHOUC  or  India-rubber  is  a  product  of  a  great  variety 
of  trees,  vines,  and  shrubs,  most  of  which  grow  in  the  torrid  zone. 
Central  America,  South  America,  Africa,  and  India  all  furnish 
their  quota,  and  while  the  gum  that  comes  from  these  vast  areas 
is  all  rubber,  it  differs  widely  in  its  characteristics,  due  in  a  meas- 
ure to  a  variety  of  methods  in  gathering  and  coagulation,  but 
more  specifically  in  its  chemical  constituents.  South  America 
produces  the  best  rubber  in  the  world  and  the  most  of  it.  The 
Amazon  valley,  embracing  hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles 
of  rubber  forests  in  Brazil,  Bolivia,  and  Peru,  is  the  center  of  the 
industry,  the  product  being  exported  from  the  city  of  Para, 
whence  the  name  "Para  rubber."  Two  or  more  species  of  the 
Hevea  produce  this  rubber,  the  best  known  being  the  Hevea  Bras- 
iliensis.  Peru  also  produces  a  rubber,  lower  in  grade  than  Para, 
known  as  "Caucho."  The  Castilloa  elastica,  the  rubber  tree  of 
Nicaragua  and  other  Central  American  states,  which  is  also  found 
in  Ecuador,  Venezuela,  Colombia,  and  Mexico,  produces  the  rub- 
ber known  as  "Centrals."  The  Atlantic  states  of  Brazil,  south  of 
Para,  produce  other  rubber  trees,  from  which  come  the  grades 
known  as  "Mangabeira,"  "Pernambuco,"  and  "Ceara."  Africa 
comes  next  to  South  America  in  the  amount  of  rubber  produced, 
and  in  the  interior  of  that  continent,  as  in  the  Amazon  country, 
there  are  great  rubber  forests  as  yet  untouched.  African  rubber 
is  inferior  to  that  obtained  from  South  America,  but  through  im- 
proved processes  in  gathering  and  curing,  the  various  sorts  are 
delivered  in  much  better  condition  year  by  year.  African  rubber 
is  found  on  both  the  east  and  west  coasts  and  throughout  the  great 
basin  of  the  Congo  river  and  also  on  the  island  of  Madagascar. 

The  Landolphia,  of  which  there  are  several  species,  is  a  giant 
vine  or  creeper  from  the  milk  of  which  most  of  the  African  rub- 
bers come.  Rubber  from  Lagos  and  from  some  other  colonies  in 
West  Africa,  however,  is  obtained  from  a  tree  known  as  the 


io         GRADES  OF  CRUDE  RUBBER. 

Kickxia  Africana.  The  East  Indies  to-day  furnish  but  little 
rubber.  The  first  rubber  exported  from  that  part  of  the  world 
came  from  Assam.  In  time,  however,  Burma  became  a  producer 
of  a  similar  grade,  known  as  "Rangoon"  rubber.  The  principal 
source  of  rubber  in  that  part  of  the  world  is  a  tree  known  as  the 
Ficus  elastica.  The  islands  of  Java  and  Borneo  and  also  Penang 
and  other  states  in  the  Malaysian  peninsula  produce  a  certain 
amount  of  rubber. 

Seaports,  trading  posts  from  which  the  first  shipment  is  made, 
the  name  of  a  colony  or  country,  or  descriptive  terms,  as  "thim- 
bles," "buttons,"  "strips" — all  or  any  of  these  may  serve  for  names 
of  different  grades  of  crude  rubber.  A  complete  market  report 
would  indicate  that  there  are  a  great  number  of  different  qualities 
of  rubber,  many  coming  from  the  same  source.  This,  however, 
is  not  wholly  true.  Take,  for  instance,  the  Para  grades:  years 
ago  any  rubber  coming  from  Brazil  was  called  Para  rubber.  Later 
it  was  divided  into  "fine,"  "medium,"  and  "coarse."  Then  the 
rubber  from  the  islands  in  the  lower  Amazon  became  known  as 
"Islands  rubber,"  while  that  coming  from  further  up  stream  was 
known  as  "Upriver,"  and  these,  too,  were  divided  into  fine,  me- 
dium, and  coarse.  Now  a  dozen  or  more  local  names  are  applied 
to  rubber  from  different  localities,  tributary  to  the  Para  market. 
At  the  same  time,  most  of  these  rubbers  sell  at  the  same  figures, 
grade  for  grade,  with  the  exception  of  coarse. 

Something  like  this  is  true  in  the  African  rubber  trade.  For 
instance,  a  great  number  of  local  names  are  applied  to  the  Congo 
rubber.  The  difference  between  "Equateur,"  "Kassai,"  and 
"Lopori"  sorts  may  not  be  greater  than  between  different  lots  from 
the  same  place.  With  a  very  few  exceptions,  the  names  which 
follow  are  those  used  commonly  in  the  leading  markets : 

PARA   RUBBER. 

RUBBER  is  classified  atParaandManaos  into  three  grades,  des- 
ignated by  the  Portugese  words  Una,  entrafina,  and  sernamby. 
These  same  grades  in  the  United  States  are  known  as  "fine,"  "me- 
dium," and  "coarse,"  while  in  England  they  are  classified  as  "fine," 
"entrafine,"  and  "negro-heads,"  the  latter  being  divided  to  provide 
for  a  subgrade,  "scrappy  negroheads."  The  production  is  about  60 


PARA  RUBBER.  n 

per  cent,  of  fine,  13  per  cent,  of  medium,  and  27  per  cent,  of  coarse. 
FINE  PARA  rubber  comes  in  large  bottles  and,  when  cut,  shows 
a  surface  closely  marked  with  lines,  corresponding  to  the  number 
of  layers  of  rubber  milk  added  during  the  smoking  process.  These 
layers  are  easily  separated  and,  when  stretched,  are  very  transpar- 
ent. This  rubber  smells  not  unlike  smoked  bacon. 

MEDIUM  or  ENTRAFINE  resembles  "fine,"  but  is  not  so  well 
cured,  curds  and  globules  of  milk  not  perfectly  smoked  being 
found  between  the  layers. 

COARSE  or  SERNAMBY  is  made  up  of  the  residue,  scraped  daily 
from  the  collecting  vessels,  or  from  milk  which  has  curdled  before 
it  could  be  smoked  and  made  into  "fine." 

Besides  this  general  classification  of  Para  rubber,  other  names 
are  in  use,  derived  from  the  localities  of  origin. 

ISLANDS  rubber  is  that  produced  on  the  island  of  Marajo, 
some  17,500  square  miles  in  extent,  and  other  islands  in  its  vic- 
inity in  the  delta  of  the  Amazon,  together  with  that  from  other 
parts  of  the  state  of  Para,  except  the  Xingu,  Tocantins,  and  Tap- 
aj os  rivers,  which  might  well  be  called  lower  Amazon  grades. 
These  islands  in  a  recent  year  yielded  over  12,000,000  pounds,  or 
63  per  cent,  of  the  total  for  the  state  of  Para.  The  Islands 
"fine"  and  "medium"  rubber  is  in  the  form  of  round  or  flat  bot- 
tles, while  the  "coarse"  or  "sernamby"  is  in  scraps  massed  into 
balls  and  round  cakes,  which  gives  the  name  "negroheads"  to  this 
grade  in  the  English  market. 

CAVIANA  rubber,  named  from  the  island  that  produces  it,  is 
the  highest  grade  of  Islands,  and  is  to-day  marketed  as  a  distinct 
sort.  It  has  a  smooth  close  grain,  and  is  much  in  demand  for  fine 
work. 

CAMETA  rubber  is  so  called  from  the  port  of  that  name,  on  the 
Tocantins  river.  It  is  noted  for  the  superior  quality  of  its  "ser- 
namby" grade,  the  "fine"  being  the  same  as  from  the  islands,  but 
rarely  seen.  This  rubber  comes  in  the  form  of  little  cups  pressed 
into  large  "negroheads." 

UPRIVER  rubber  includes  the  product  of  the  country  border- 
ing the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  above  Para,  and  that  which 
comes  from  Peru  and  Bolivia  through  the  large  streams  rising  in 
those  countries — such  rivers  are  the  Purus,  Jurua,  Javary,  and 


12         GRADES  OF  CRUDE  RUBBER. 

Madeira.  This  rubber  for  the  most  part  is  derived  from  the 
Hevea  discolor  and  comes  to  market  in  biscuits  varying  greatly  in 
size  and  shape,  a  full  average  biscuit  weighing  about  thirty 
pounds.  The  rubber  tree  on  the  islands  is  more  frequently  the 
Hevea  Brasiliensis,  but  it  is  a  mooted  question  whether  the  differ- 
ence in  the  trees  accounts  for  the  difference  in  quality  between 
Upriver  and  Islands  rubber.  "Upriver"  rubber  is  marketed  also 
under  such  local  names  as  "Manaos,"  "Madeira,"  "Bolivian,"  etc. 

ITAITUBA  rubber  comes  from  the  port  of  that  name,  at  the 
head  of  steam  navigation  on  the  Tapajos  river,  which  enters  the 
Amazon  at  Santarem.  Rubber  from  this  river  is  distinguished 
for  the  rather  gutty  quality  of  the  "fine"  and  "medium,"  and  its 
stringy,  dirty  "sernamby." 

XINGU  rubber  from  the  Xingu  river,  is  noted  for  the  spe- 
cially good  cure  of  the  "fine." 

MANAOS  rubber  is  named  from  the  city  which  is  the  capital 
of  Amazonas,  1,200  miles  up  the  Amazon  river,  and  the  center 
of  the  rubber  trade  of  an  immense  district.  Upriver  rubber  ex- 
ported direct  to  foreign  markets  from  this  port  is  sometimes  des- 
ignated as  "Manaos  rubber." 

MADEIRA  rubber,  named  from  a  great  river  which  joins  the 
Amazon  below  Manaos,  is  of  excellent  quality  and  produced  in 
large  quantities.  It  has  a  finer  and  closer  grain  than  any  other 
upriver  rubber  except  the  Bolivian. 

BOLIVIAN  rubber  is  floated  down  the  Beni  and  other  rivers. 
in  Bolivia  to  the  Madeira,  and  thence  to  the  Amazon.  It  meets 
innumerable  detentions  from  cataracts  in  the  upper  Madeira,  on 
account  of  which  it  becomes  somewhat  dried  before  reaching  mar- 
ket. It  has  the  further  advantage  of  being  cured  by  a  better  class 
of  labor  than  is  common  in  Brazil,  of  having  a  tougher  fiber  and 
of  being  cleaner  than  most  upriver  rubber,  for  which  reasons  it 
brings  higher  prices  than  any  other. 

MOLLENDO  rubber  comes  from  southern  Bolivia,  being  trans- 
ported by  steamers  across  Lake  Titicaca  and  by  rail  to  Mollendo, 
a  Peruvian  port  on  the  Pacific,  and  thence  principally  to  England. 
It  is  prepared  in  biscuits  and  sheets  and  is  marketed  at  a  price 
between  upriver  and  islands. 

ANGOSTURA  rubber  comes  down  the  Orinoco  in  Venezuela, 


CENTRAL  RUBBERS.  13 

from  Cuidad  Bolivar,  which  town  formerly  was  known  as  Angos- 
tura. It  is  of  the  same  grades  as  the  Para  sorts.  Some  of  the 
same  class  of  rubber  finds  its  way  into  Brazil,  at  Manaos,  where 
its  identity  is  lost. 

ORINOCO  rubber  is  the  same  as  " Angostura." 
MATTO  GROSSO  rubber  is  from  the  state  of  that  name  in  the 
southwest  of  Brazil,  and  reaches  the  market  partly  through  tribu- 
taries of  the  Amazon  and  partly  through  the  Parana,  which  dis- 
charges into  the  river  Plate.  It  comes  in  "fine,"  "medium,"  and 
"coarse,"  but  principally  the  latter,  little  of  it  reaching  the  market 
at  present. 

CAUCHO  is  a  distinct  sort  of  rubber,  inferior  to  that  from 
Para,  collected  along  the  Peruvian  rivers  tributary  to  the  Amazon 
and  particularly  along  the  Javary.  It  is  not  cured  by  smoking, 
but  by  the  admixture  with  the  milk  of  lime,  potash,  or  soap.  The 
physical  characteristics  of  Caucho  in  the  main  are  the  same  as  in 
the  Central  American  rubbers.  It  is  known  also  as  "Peruvian 
rubber"  or  "Peruvian  caucho."  It  is  exported  from  Iquitos;  Ma- 
naos, and  Para,  and  included  in  the  general  total  of  rubber  ex- 
ports from  the  Amazon  country.  It  comes  to  market  in  three 
forms — Ball,  Strip,  and  Sheet  (or  Slabs) — ranging  in  value  in 
the  order  named. 

CENTRAL    RUBBERS. 

CENTRAL  AMERICAN  rubber,  or  "Centrals,"  includes  that 
which  is  produced  in  all  the  states  north  of  the  Amazon  valley, 
up  to  and  including  southern  Mexico.  It  forms  a  distinctive  class, 
being  the  product  of  a  tree  not  found  elsewhere.  The  consumption 
of  Centrals  in  the  United  States  was  larger  once  than  of  Para  rub- 
ber, but  the  yield  has  declined  gradually  to  small  proportions. 
This  rubber  is  in  good  demand  for  certain  uses,  ranking  in  price 
below  coarse  Para.  It  has  not  the  toughness  or  strength  of  fine 
Para,  and  possesses  less  elasticity.  Centrals  are  classed  usually 
as  "sheet"  and  "scrap,"  besides  which  the  terms  "strip,"  "slab," 
"ball,"  and  "sausage"  are  used.  Greytown  being  a  common  ship- 
ping-point for  Centrals,  there  is  much  confusion,  one  sort  often 
getting  substituted  for  another.  Most  of  the  yield  of  Costa  Rica 
is  exported  through  Nicaragua.  The  treatment  of  Centrals  gen- 


14         GRADES  OF  CRUDE  RUBBER. 

erally  consists  in  heating  the  sap  and  stirring  in  a  strong  concoc- 
tion of  the  mik  of  bindweed,  the  product  being  "sheet"  rubber. 
The  rubber  drippings  which  adhere  to  the  bark  of  the  tapped 
trees  are  peeled  off  when  dry  and  called  ''scrap."  The  trade  names 
below  apply  to  the  locality  of  origin,  rather  than  indicating  dis- 
tinctions in  quality. 

NICARAGUA  rubber  includes  more  than  the  product  of  that 
republic.  The  real  Nicaragua  rubber  is  drier  as  a  rule  than  other 
grades  of  Centrals.  Nicaragua  sheet  comes  to  market  in  a  less 
clean  condition  than  formerly,  and  the  scrap  now  brings  a  better 
price. 

GREYTOWN  SCRAP  is  the  best  grade  of  Nicaragua  rubber. 

GUATEMALA  rubber  is  inferior  and  unequal  in  quality.  The 
best  is  whitish  in  color,  and  the  lower  grades  black  with  a  tarry 
appearance.  It  is  said  to  be  sometimes  adulterated  with  cheap 
molasses.  In  curing,  the  rubber-gatherers  pour  the  sap  upon  mats 
to  dry,  afterwards  pulling  off  the  product  in  sheets,  pressing  them 
together  for  shipment. 

GUAYAQUIL  STRIP,  from  Ecuador,  is  imported  in  two  grades 
— good  and  ordinary.  Like  the  Guatemala  rubber,  the  best  has  a 
whitish  appearance.  The  inferior  sort  is  porous  and  filled  with  a 
fetid  black  liquid,  which  carries  an  almost  indelible  stain. 

ESMERALDA  rubber,  which  also  comes  from  Ecuador,  is  class- 
ed as  a  Strip  and  Sausage,  the  two  grades  coming  to  market  in 
about  equal  quantities. 

COLOMBIAN  is  a  pressed  strip  rubber,  dark  in  color,  some- 
times showing  white  when  cut.  It  is  graded  "No.  i"  and  "No.  2." 
Some  of  the  rubber  from  Colombia  bears  local  designations,  be- 
sides varying  in  quality.  These  include: 

Cartagena,  a  strip  rubber,  dark  and  tough,  graded  "No.  i" 
and  "No.  2,"  selling  at  less  than  "Colombian."  It  comes  also  in 
thin  sheets,  rough  or  "chewed"  in  appearance,  and  tarry  or  sticky. 
The  production  has  decreased  very  much  of  late. 

Panama  rubber,  like  that  from  Nicaragua,  embraces  a  wide 
range  of  quality.  The  Pacific  mail  steamers  bring  together  at  Pa- 
nama rubber  from  numerous  ports,  and  confusion  of  grades  is  a 
result.  What  is  marketed  as  "Panama"  comes  in  "sheet"  and 
"strip." 


AFRICAN  RUBBER.  15 

Tumaco  comes  in  "sheet/'  "slab/'  and  "scrap,"  from  the  Pa- 
cific coast  of  Colombia.  Very  little  of  it  is  received. 

MEXICAN  rubber  is  of  fair  quality,  but  is  received  in  constant- 
ly decreasing  quantities.  The  grades,  listed  in  the  order  of  their 
selling  value,  are  Ball,  Strip  (or  Scrap),  and  Slab. 

Tuxpam  strip  comes  from  the  Mexican  port  of  that  name. 
Very  little  of  it  is  received,  and  that  not  of  uniform  quality. 

HONDURAS  STRIP  is  of  a  quality  similar  to  the  Mexican,  but 
is  little  produced. 

WEST  INDIAN  rubber  has  a  good  reputation  for  quality.  It  is 
not  produced  on  the  islands,  but  comes  from  Venezuela  and  Cen- 
tral America,  and  is  simply  a  general  trade  name  used  in  England. 

The  grades  which  follow,  though  not  entitled  geographically 
to  be  included  as  "Centrals,"  are  in  fact  so  classed,  on  account  of 
their  quality. 

MANGABEIRA  rubber  is  so  called  from  the  local  name  of  the 
tree  producing  it,  in  the  Atlantic  states  of  Brazil,  south  of  Para. 
It  is  an  alum-cured  rubber  and  comes  in  sheets,  which  resemble 
slices  of  liver  and  are  of  a  tawny  red  color.  The  thin  sheet  sells 
for  more  than  the  thick,  as  it  is  dryer  and  better  cured.  Occasion- 
ally it  comes  in  the  form  of  balls.  It  is  exported  from  Pernam- 
buco,  Bahia,  Natal,  and  other  points  on  the  coast. 

PERNAMBUCO  is  another  name  for  Mangabeira  rubber,  deriv- 
ed from  the  principal  state  and  port  from  which  it  is  shipped. 

CEARA  rubber  comes  from  a  tree  particularly  abundant  in  the 
Brazilian  state  of  Ceara  and  is  marketed  principally  in  England. 
The  sap  exudes  from  the  tree  and  coagulates  in  the  form  of  "tears" 
which  are  gathered  in  scraps  and  balls.  There  are  three  grades, 
the  lowest  of  which  is  dirty  and  difficult  to  use.  Ceara  rubber  is 
deficient  in  elasticity  and  is  hard  to  vulcanize.  It  is  very  dry  and 
free  from  stickiness. 

AFRICAN   RUBBER. 

AFRICAN  rubbers,  though  comparatively  late  in  becom- 
ing known,  are  produced  now  in  quantities  second  only  to  the  sup- 
ply from  the  Amazon.  As  a  class  they  are  more  adhesive  and  less 
elastic  than  Para  rubbers,  ranking  with  or  below  Para  negroheads. 
They  often  contain  a  liberal  percentage  of  impurities,  and  for  a 


IL         GRADES  OF  CRUDE  RUBBER. 

long  time  their  disagreeable  odor  and  intractable  nature  hindered 
their  introduction.  But  advancing  prices  for  Para  grades  and  fear 
of  their  coming  scarcity  led  manufacturers  to  experiment  with 
African  rubbers,  until  many  uses  were  found  for  them.  The  re- 
sult has  been  a  temporary  check  in  the  upward  tendency  in  price 
of  the  Para  grades,  although  there  are  many  purposes  for  which 
Africans  never  have  been  considered  as  competing  with  them.  At 
the  same  time,  the  possibilities  in  the  way  of  utilizing  African 
sorts  have  not  been  exhausted,  each  year  bringing  out  new  uses. 
The  African  rubbers  are  obtained  from  giant  creepers,  of 
which  there  are  a  dozen  species  on  the  continent  and  in  the  island 
of  Madagascar,  and  also  from  several  trees,  the  most  important 
one  of  which  abounds  on  the  Gold  Coast,  in  Lagos,  and  some  other 
West  Coast  colonies.  The  adulteration  of  African  rubbers  is  not 
uncommon,  being  due  to  the  dishonesty,  not  only  of  the  native 
gatherers,  but  doubtless  also  of  some  foreign  traders  on  the  coasts. 
But  in  several  of  the  English  and  Belgian  colonies  stringent  laws 
have  been  passed  to  prevent  such  adulterations.  On  the  Gold 
Coast  the  lumps  of  rubber  brought  to  market  by  the  natives  were 
formerly  cut  into  strips  or  buttons  by  machinery,  before  being  ex- 
ported. To-day  this  work  is  done  in  England,  the  rubber  then 
being  known  as  "Liverpool  pressed."  It  has  been  urged  by  some 
importers  of  Lagos  rubber  that  wilful  adulteration  by  the  natives 
is  rare.  Rubber  has  been  worked  in  Lagos  for  only  about  four 
years,  so  that  many  of  the  workers  there  are  yet  inexperienced  and 
lacking  in  skill.  Even  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  where  the  indus- 
try began  ten  years  earlier,  a  certain  percentage  of  the  rubber  is 
spoiled  in  gathering. 

The  milk  of  the  Landolphia  vines,  the  chief  rubber  producers 
of  Africa,  coagulates  on  exposure  to  the  air,  though  in  some  locali- 
ties use  is  made  of  various  astringents,  boiling  in  water,  and  other 
methods  to  assist  in  preparing  rubber.    Even  where  these  methods 
are  used,  a  residue  of  the  rubber  sap  is  left  to  dry  on  the  bark 
and  in  the  earth,  and  is  gathered  in  strings  or  scraps.    The  only     / 
treatment  in  some  other  places  is  the  smearing  of  the  sap  upon  the     f 
bare  bodies  of  the  natives,  where  it  dries  speedily  in  the  sun,  and  is 
easily  peeled  off. 

BALL  is  the  classification  of  a  large  share  of  the  African  rub- 


AFRICAN  RUBBER.  17 

bers,  which  comes  in  every  size  from  three  or  four  inches  in  dia- 
meter down  to  half  an  inch  or  less.  "Small  ball"  of  the  several 
kinds  differs  from  the  ''large  ball"  in  size,  and  is  also  dryer  and 
affords  a  smaller  degree  of  shrinkage. 

THIMBLES. — The  natives,  after  gathering  this  rubber,  cut  it 
into  cubes,  about  an  inch  square  or  less.  Thimbles  contain  bark 
and  sand,  but  very  little  moisture. 

NUTS. — Rubber  thimbles  from  Ambriz  are  quoted  sometimes 
in  European  markets  as  "Ambriz  nuts." 

LUMP  rubber  comes  in  large  pieces,  varying  in  size  and  of 
irregular  shapes.  When  packed  in  casks  the  pieces  often  become 
massed  together  in  transit.  It  is  from  the  best  of  the  lump  rubber 
that  the  most  desirable  buttons  and  strips  are  made. 

FLAKE  comes  in  lumps,  livers,  and  soft  irregular  masses,  and 
is  valuable  in  the  factory  chiefly  for  frictions  and  for  softening 
compounds. 

PASTE  is  the  same  as  "Flake."  The  Accra  flake  and  Niger 
paste,  which  are  the  same  in  quality,  are  at  the  foot  of  the  list,  in 
respect  to  prices,  the  Niger  being  the  cleaner. 

STRIPS  are  lump  rubber  that  is  sliced  and  pressed  by  machi- 
nery before  it  is  offered  to  the  trade. 

BUTTONS  is  a  name  applied  to  rubber  similarly  treated  as  in 
making  strips,  except  that  it  is  cut  into  small  pieces,  whereas  strips 
have  been  marketed  in  every  length  up  to  ten  feet. 

BISCUITS  is  another  name  for  "Buttons." 

OYSTERS  is  another  name  for  "Buttons"  or  "Biscuits." 

TONGUES. — Some  rubber  formerly  came  to  market  in  long, 
narrow,  tongue-shaped  pieces.  The  same  grades  are  now  more 
frequently  seen  in  the  shape  of  large  balls. 

NIGGERS  are  of  various  sorts  and  from  different  sources. 
These  rubbers  are  ball-like  in  some  cases,  having  the  appearance 
of  masses  of  stringy  rubber  pressed  together  between  the  hands 
and  wound  into  compact  masses. 

TWIST  rubber  is  not  unlike  "Niggers"  in  quality,  but  shows 
less  shrinkage  and  differs  in  preparation  and  appearance.  The 
string  or  strip-like  pieces  are  wrapped  about  each  other  in  order 
to  give  a  twisted  look  to  the  balls. 

The  list  of  rubber  grades  which  follows  is  based  upon  a  geo- 


i8        GRADES  OF  CRUDE  RUBBER. 

graphical  arrangement,  beginning  with  the  upper  west  coast  of 

Africa : 

GAMBIA. 

Gambia  Niggers  (No.  i,  No.  2,  No.  3). — These  are  classified 
according  to  cleanliness,  No.  i  and  No.  2  being  fairly  clean,  and 
No.  3  containing  considerable  soil. 

Bathurst. — Same  as  Gambia. 

SIERRA  LEONE. 

Sierra  Leone  Twists  (No.  i,  No.  2,  and  rejections). — This  is 
white  and  amber  in  color,  of  low  shrinkage,  and  has  bark  and  grit 
in  it,  but  little  moisture. 

Niggers  (No.  i,  No.  2,  No.  3)  are  quite  moist.  No.  2  and 
No.  3  contain  considerable  soil. 

Cake. — Fairly  clean,  but  wet.  It  is  both  red  and  white,  the 
former  bringing  the  better  price. 

Manoh  Twists. — This  comes  in  the  shape  of  tightly  wound 
cords  of  rubber  and  works  soft.  In  color  it  is  black  or  white,  the 
black  being  the  best. 

LIBERIA. 

Liberian. — This  is  graded  as  Lump,  Hard  Flake,  and  Soft. 
It  cuts  yellow,  is  very  wet,  and  is  often  a  soft  pasty  rubber. 

ASSINEE. 

What  is  known  as  Assinee  is  graded  as  follows:  Assinee- 
Silky,  Grand  Bassam,  Attoaboa,  Lahou,  Bayin,  Half  lack.  It  is 
like  Old  Calabar,  only  it  comes  in  chunks  three  inches  square,  is 
wet,  and  cuts  yellow.  These  names  are  chiefly  used  in  the  English 
market. 

GOLD   COAST    COLONY. 

Gold  Coast. — This  is  chiefly  lump  from  which  Strips  and  But- 
tons are  made.  There  are  also  Biscuits  and  Niggers  (hard  and 
soft).  The  Flake  is  wet  and  has  a  bad  smell,  but  otherwise  is  quite 
clean. 

Accra. — The  Accra  lump  furnishes  Strips  and  Buttons  and  is 
graded  "prime,"  "seconds,"  and  "thirds."  The  lower  grades  are 
Flake  and  Paste. 

Cape  Coast. — This  is  another  lump  from  which  Strips  and 
Buttons  are  manufactured  and  has  for  lower  grades  Flake  and 
Soft. 


AFRICAN  RUBBER.  19 

Salt  Pond. — This  Lump  is  also  used  in  Strips  and  Buttons, 
the  lowest  grade  being  Flake. 

Addah  Niggers  (graded  as  No.  I  and  No.  2)  is  very  similar 
to  Sierra  Leone,  but  generally  in  smaller  balls.  It  is  not  an  Accra 
rubber,  nor  are  Quittah  Niggers  or  Axim.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  grades  from  these  different  ports  differ  little  if  any,  and  are 
sold  most  frequently  under  the  head  of  "Accra"  rubber,  from  the 
name  of  the  principal  town  in  the  colony. 

TOGOLAND. 

Lomi  (or  Lome)  Ball. — The  best  grade  of  this  is  a  clean,  firm 
rubber  and  is  fairly  dry.  The  lower  grades  are  rarely  seen. 

LAGOS. 

Lagos. — This  Lump  is  also  turned  into  Buttons  and  Strips, 
while  soft  inferior  lumps  are  sold  without  manufacturing,  as  low 
grades.  It  is  very  easily  distinguished  from  Accra  by  its  odor. 

NIGER  RIVER  PROTECTORATE. 

Niger. — The  chief  grade  is  Paste,  which  has  an  acid  smell  and 
is  a  low  grade  pasty  rubber,  wet  but  clean. 

Old  Calabar. — It  is  graded  as  Blue,  Lump,  and  Niggers  and 
is  very  bad  smelling.  The  best  lump  is  undoubtedly  used  for  strips 
and  buttons. 

Benin  Ball. — Is  generally  dirty  and  has  a  rotten,  woody  smell. 

CAMEROONS    (OR  KAMERUN). 

Cameroons. — The  Ball  is  graded  as  large,  mixed,  and  small ; 
the  Clusters,  which  contain  some  fifty  balls,  as  No.  i  and  No.  2 ; 
and  the  Knuckly  ball,  which  is  a  small  dry  ball.  This  rubber  has 
a  fairly  strong  smell. 

Batanga  Ball  ("B,"  "E"). — Same  as  Cameroons,  Batanga  be- 
ing the  name  of  a  river  and  country  in  the  Cameroons. 

FRENCH    CONGO. 

French  Congo  rubber  is  very  similar  to  Cameroon,  but  the 
balls  are  larger. 

Gaboon  is  the  best  known  flake  and  has  for  additional  grades : 
Lump,  Large  "O"  Ball,  and  Small  "O"  Ball.  The  Flake  is  free 
from  dirt  and  is  soft. 

Mayumba  is  both  Ball  and  Flake.  Another  grade  known  as 
Mixed  is  a  combination  of  the  two  and  is  sold  as  second  quality. 

Loango. — Ball. 


20         GRADES  OF  CRUDE  RUBBER. 

These  are  names  of  rubber  stations  on  the  coast.  The  natives 
boil  rubber  milk,  adding  the  juices  of  vines,  and,  while  the  rubber 
is  hardening,  wind  it  into  balls,  weighing  from  one-fifth  pound  to 
three  pounds.  The  best  rubber  is  not  boiled,  the  milk  drying  on 
the  wrists  of  the  natives,  as  they  tap  the  rubber  vines.  At  the  coast 
the  balls  are  cut,  to  detect  any  cheating,  and  washed  and  packed  in 
casks  for  export. 

CONGO  FREE  STATE. 

Congo  rubber  comes  in  the  shape  of  Buttons,  Balls  (No.  I 
and  No.  2),  Red  Thimbles,  and  Black  Thimbles.  The  Ball  is  simi- 
lar to  Cameroons,  but  tougher.  The  Dutch  Congo  Ball  is  the  same 
as  the  Congo  Ball,  but  is  known  as  the  best  grade  of  that  rubber. 
There  is  also  the  Congo  (Kassai),  Black  Twist  (graded  as  fine, 
mixed,  and  secondary),  and  Red  Twist.  The  Strips  are  among 
the  toughest  of  African  rubbers  and  are  dry,  with  a  woody  smell. 

From  the  Lower  Congo  conies  also  the  Luvituku,  which  is  a 
Red  Ball  rubber,  and  from  the  Upper  Congo,  the  following : 

Upper  Congo. — Ball,  Red  Ball,  Twists,  and  Strips,  all  of 
which  is  good  tough  rubber. 

Uelle. — Strips,  usually  heated  and  fermented  and  bad  smell- 
ing; Cakes,  wet,  but  clean. 

Sankuru. — Ball,  very  similar  to  Congo  Ball. 

Lake  Leopold. — Graded  as  Sausage  and  Ball.  It  does  not 
differ  from  the  foregoing  enough  to  warrant  special  description. 

Equateur. — In  the  form  of  balls  (small  and  mixed).  It  is 
dark,  dry,  and  clean,  but  contains  some  fermented  rubber,  which 
smells  badly. 

Lopori. — Graded  as  Ball  (large  and  small),  Strips,  and  Cakes. 
Some  of  the  balls  are  fine  and  clean,  while  others  contain  fermented 
milk.  Lopori  also  comes  as  Sausage. 

Bangui. — Comes  in  the  form  of  strips  and  is  a  firm,  tough 
rubber. 

Bussira. — Ball ;  a  trifle  softer  than  Lopori,  but  usually  of  ex- 
cellent quality  and  dry.  In  use  it  develops  a  strong  smell. 

Aruwimi. — Ball.  This  usually  comes  as  large,  firm  balls, 
but  on  cutting  them  open  much  of  the  interior  is  found  fermented. 

Mongolia. — In  this  the  Ball  is  similar  to  Upper  Congo  Red 
Ball.  It  also  comes  in  Strips,  and  is  a  good  rubber. 


AFRICAN  RUBBER.  21 

Bumba. — Ball ;  Buki — Ball ;  Tava  and  Kwilu  are  all  good  Up- 
per Congo  grades  that  are  not  distinctive  enough  to  dwell  upon. 

Wamba. — This  is  a  grade  of  Thimbles  and  is  a  good  black 
rubber,  with  only  ordinary  shrinkage. 

ANGOLA. 

Benguela. — Graded  as  Sausage  and  Niggers.  Of  the  latter, 
No.  i  is  clean  and  tough,  and  No.  2  contains  a  large  percentage 
of  red  leaf. 

Loanda. — In  this  the  grades,  which  are  Sausage  and  Nig- 
gers, are  similar  to  Benguela,  but  not  so  dry.  There  are  also 
Twists  (red  and  black). 

Ambriz. — Chiefly  Thimbles  or  Nuts ;  both  are  poor  grades. 

EAST  AFRICA. 

Mozambique  rubber  is  that  coming  from  the  port  of  Mozam- 
bique, from  other  ports  in  the  same  colony,  and  perhaps  from  still 
other  East  African  ports.  It  possesses  some  properties  in  com- 
mon with  the  Madagascar  rubbers.  The  rate  of  shrinkage  is  less 
than  in  most  African  sorts,  and  good  prices  are  obtained.  In  the 
Liverpool  market,  which  is  the  best  for  Mozambique  grades,  quo- 
tations afe  made  for  Orange  Ball,  Ball  No.  i,  Ball  No.  2,  Ball  No. 
3,  Liver,  Sausage,  Root,  Sticks  or  spindles,  Sticks  removed,  Un- 
ripe. 

The  Orange  Ball  (resembling  an  orange  in  size  and  shape) 
is  the  choicest  rubber.  Other  grades  of  Mozambique  Ball  are 
distinguished  further  as  "white"  and  "red,"  the  latter  being  in- 
ferior. Its  reddish  color  is  due  to  the  fine  bark  mixed  with  it. 
The  Unripe  contains  more  bark  than  rubber,  and  is  not  thoroughly 
cured. 

Sticks  or  spindles  consist  of  spindle-shaped  pieces  made  of 
slender  strings  of  rubber  wound  around  a  bit  of  wood.  Liver 
(or  cakes)  is  in  smooth  pieces  of  irregular  size. 

Lamu  Ball,  Liver,  Sausage,  and  Root  come  from  the  Mozam- 
bique port  of  this  name.  They  are  not  rubbers  of  a  distinctive  sort. 

MADAGASCAR. 

Madagascar  rubber  ranks  higher  in  price  than  most  other 
African  sorts.  Considering  the  greater  loss  sustained  in  washing, 
it  costs  nearly  as  much  at  times  as  fine  Para.  It  is  a  favorite  with 
manufacturers  of  hard  rubber,  on  account  of  the  fine  lustrous 


22         GRADES  OF  CRUDE  RUBBER. 

polish  which  it  assumes  under  the  buffing-wheel.  The  principal 
classification  is  between  "pinky"  and  "black." 

Pinky  comes  in  round  balls,  weighing  i^  to  4  pounds,  black 
on  the  outside  from  exposure  to  the  air,  but  having  a  pinkish- 
white  look  when  cut. 

Black,  also  in  small  balls,  when  cut  shows  a  dark  color,  and 
is  more  or  less  sandy  and  dirty. 

Tamatave  being  the  principal  seaport,  its  name  is  liable  to  be 
applied  to  any  grades  shipped  from  there.  But  what  is  described 
as  "Prime  pinky  Tamatave"  is  the  best  rubber  produced  in  Mada- 
gascar. 

Majunga  rubber,  from  the  west  coast  town  of  that  name,  is  a 
dark  rubber  of  special  excellence,  ranking  next  to  "pinky"  in  price. 

Niggers  (or  negroheads)  are  designated  as  "East  coast"  and 
"West  coast,"  and  also  as  "Red  ball,"  and  "Gristly."  They  gener- 
ally contain  sand  and  dirt. 

Brown  cure  (or  brown  slab)  is  a  still  lower  grade. 

Unripe  is  the  lowest.  This  term  is  applied  to  balls  containing 
bark  in  the  center. 

Madagascar  rubber  is  cured  (i)  by  the  use  of  salt  water,  in 
which  case  the  water  is  never  wholly  expelled,  leading  to  a  heavy 
rate  of  shrinkage,  and  (2)  by  artificial  heat.  The  island  is  rich 
in  rubber  forests,  but  the  exports  are  restricted  by  the  wasteful 
methods  of  the  natives,  which  exhaust  the  trees  and  vines,  par- 
ticularly near  the  coast. 

EAST  INDIAN. 

ASSAM  rubber  is  strong  and  of  firm  texture.  It  is  fairly  elas- 
tic, though  often  less  so  on  account  of  carelessness  in  gathering 
and  the  introduction  of  impurities.  There  are  four  grades  usually 
(No.  I  to  No.  4),  of  which  the  lower  ones  are  extremely  dirty  and 
contain  soft  rubber.  The  better  grades  when  cut  have  a  glossy, 
marbleized  appearance,  somewhat  pinkish  in  color.  Assam  rubber 
is  marketed  in  small  balls,  made  by  winding  up  strings  of  rubber 
dried  on  the  trees,  and  also  in  oblong  slabs  of  irregular  size,  wrap- 
ped in  plaited  straw.  The  output  has  declined  for  several  years, 
the  attempts  at  the  cultivation  of  new  trees  in  Assam  having  been 
without  practical  results.  Meanwhile  the  same  species  has  been 


EAST  INDIAN  RUBBER.  23 

found  in  Burma,  where  the  production  of  rubber  has  grown  at  an 
equal  rate  with  the  falling  off  in  Assam. 

RANGOON  rubber  is  the  product  of  Burma,  exported  through 
the  port  of  Rangoon,  and  differs  so  little  from  Assam  rubber  as 
to  require  no  separate  description.  Four  grades  are  marketed,  at 
practically  the  same  prices  as  for  Assam  rubber. 

JAVA  rubber,  from  the  island  of  this  name,  is  dark  and  glossy, 
of  a  deeper  tint  than  the  Assam  sorts,  with  occasional  red  streaks. 
Otherwise,  its  history  and  characteristics  are  nearly  identical  with 
those  of  Assam  rubber.  Three  grades  are  recognized.  The  milk 
dries  on  the  surface  of  the  trees,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  the 
shrinkage  of  the  better  grades  is  slight. 

PENANG  rubber  (from  one  of  the  states  in  the  Malaysian  penin- 
sula, including  the  island  of  Penang)  is  also  very  similar  to  that 
from  Assam.  There  are  three  or  four  grades,  at  slightly  lower 
prices  than  the  Assam  sorts  bring. 

BORNEO  rubber  ranks  below  the  other  Asiatic  sorts,  being 
lower  in  price,  with  a  higher  rate  of  shrinkage.  It  is  of  a  whitish 
color,  changing  with  age  to  a  dull  pink  or  red.  It  comes  to  market 
shaped  like  pieces  of  liver,  and  is  soft,  porous,  or  spongy.  The 
pores  are  filled  with  salt  water  or  whey,  for  the  reason  that  salt 
is  used  to  coagulate  the  rubber,  and  the  water  evaporating  leaves 
a  saline  incrustation  in  the  cells.  There  are  three  grades,  the  first 
of  which  is  a  good  rubber,  while  the  lowest,  when  cut,  is  almost 
as  soft  as  putty,  and  is  worth  little. 

GUTTA-SUSU  is  a  local  name  applied  in  Borneo  to  what  is 
known  in  the  markets  as  "Borneo  No.  3." 

CEYLON  SCRAP  is  the  product  of  a  few  small  plantations  in 
Ceylon  of  the  South  American  tree  known  as  "Ceara  rubber." 


CHAPTER   II. 

SOME  LITTLE  KNOWN  RUBBERS  AND  BASTARD  OR  PSEUDO  GUMS. 

FOR  the  last  fifteen  or  twenty  years  reports  have  come  in  from 
all  over  the  tropical  world  regarding  the  discovery  of  gums,  some 
of  which  were  similar  to  India-rubber,  while  others  were  more  like 
Gutta-percha.  In  a  few  instances  these  gums  have  appeared  on 
the  market  in  due  time  under  various  names  and  have  been  use- 
ful. This  is  not  the  rule,  however,  and  it  is  due  to  a  variety  of 
reasons.  The  first,  perhaps,  is  the  scientific  attitude  of  those  who 
primarily  examine  the  samples  received  at  the  great  centers  of 
civilization.  Unless  gums  are  of  high  grade,  and  bear  promise  of 
being  nearly  as  valuable  as  a  good  grade  of  India-rubber  or  Gut- 
ta-percha, they  are  usually  pronounced  as  worthless,  or  nearly  so. 
These  same  experts,  it  is  well  to  remember,  condemned  reclaimed 
rubber  and  substitutes,  which  may  lead  the  manufacturer  to  sus- 
pect that  his  wants  are  not  always  appreciated  by  the  learned.  It 
is  possible,  of  course,  that  the  scientists  and  experts  are  right,  and 
that  it  would  have  been  better  had  reclaimed  rubber  or  substitutes 
never  been  known.  Nevertheless,  rubber  manufacturers  are  ever 
in  the  market  for  them,  and  would  welcome  many  of  the  pseudo 
gums  and  find  large  uses  for  them,  if  once  they  were  within  reach. 

Aside  from  the  scientific  attitude  is  the  indifferent  attitude  of 
the  gatherers  in  their  native  wilds,  and  of  the  importers  who  see 
little  profit  in  such  cheap  gums,  and  of  the  manufacturers  them- 
selves, who  wait  until  a  neighbor  has  tried  something  new  before 
venturing  to  experiment. 

It  is  only  sufficient  to  recall  what  is  needed  in  rubber  com- 
pounding to  see  how  many  of  these  gums  could  be  made  valuable. 
For  example,  sometimes  simple  stickiness  is  called  for ;  in  another 
case  only  insulating  qualities  and  stickiness ;  in  still  another,  wa- 
terproofing qualities  and  stickiness ;  and  it  is  well  to  add  here, 
that  where  only  one  valuable  quality  exists  in  a  gum  others  can 
often  be  supplied.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  present  state  of 
compounding  and  manipulation,  the  presence  of  resins  is  not 
heeded,  short  life  can  be  overcome,  and  intractability  can  be  done 
away  with. 

24 


SOME  LITTLE  KNOWN  RUBBERS.  25 

A  few  years  ago  a  leading  American  rubber  manufacturer 
attempted  to  secure  from  Mexico  a  quantity  of  the  bark  from  a 
small  tree  which  was  believed  to  yield  rubber,  with  a  view  to  ex- 
tracting the  gum,  by  the  boiling  process.  His  agent,  not  under- 
standing the  instructions  given,  had  enough  of  the  shrubs  cut  off 
at  the  ground  to  make  a  steamer  load,  and  shipped  them  entire — 
wood  and  all.  A  liberal  yield  was  obtained  of  a  gum  equal  in 
quality  to  a  good  grade  of  Centrals.  The  undertaking  did  not 
prove  profitable  enough,  however,  to  cause  it  to  be  repeated.  But 
without  doubt  it  would  pay  to  engage  in  the  extraction  of  rubber 
from  this  shrub  in  the  district  where  it  abounds.  More  recently 
the  writer  has  received  a  sample  of  gum,  worth  perhaps  35  cents 
per  pound  at  present  prices,  which  was  the  product  of  another 
Mexican  shrub,  said  to  be  found  in  great  quantities,  and  needing 
only  harvesting  and  pressing  to  produce  a  valuable  rubber. 

It  is  with  the  hope  that  some  of  the  gums  mentioned  in  the 
following  pages  may  be  brought  before  the  rubber  manufacturers 
the  world  over,  that  space  has  been  given  to  them. 

SOME   LITTLE   KNOWN   RUBBERS. 

JEVE  RUBBER. — Known  only  by  hearsay.  Probably  the  pro- 
duct of  the  SipJiocampylos  Jamesonianus,  found  in  the  valley  of 
the  Mayo,  in  Colombia,  and  also  in  Ecuador,  and  described  by 
Humboldt. 

Cow  TREE  RUBBER. — The  cow  tree  is  very  plentiful  in  tropi- 
cal South  America  and  yields  a  milk  commonly  used  for  food. 
This  milk  contains  considerable  caoutchouc,  which  is  about  30  per 
cent,  resin.  Botanically  it  is  known  as  the  Brosimum  galactoden- 

dron.  [Dr.  D.  Morris,  "Cantor  Lectures,"  1898.] 

BAKA  GUM. — Found  in  the  Fiji  archipelago.  Comes  from 
Ficus  obligua  (Foret).  Used  by  natives  for  birdlime.  Sap  very 
abundant.  Gum  little  known.  Samples  sent  to  England  were 
reported  upon  as  being  suitable  for  mixing.  As  prices  are  to-day 
would  be  worth  about  50  cents  a  pound.  [Kew  Annual  Report,  1877.] 

CUMAI  RUBBER. — From  the  milk  of  a  tree  found  on  the  Rio 
Negro  and  Uaupes,  in  Brazil.  None  comes  to  market.  This  milk 
is  used  by  the  natives  for  waterproofing  purposes. 

[Dr.  D.  Morris,  "Cantor  Lectures,"  1898.] 


26  SOME  LITTLE  KNOWN  RUBBERS. 

MUSA  RUBBER. — A  gum  expressed  from  the  peel  and  leaves 
of  the  banana  and  pisang  plants.  No  gum  yet  on  the  market.  Pro- 
cess patented  in  England  by  Otto  Zurcher,  of  Kingston,  Jamaica. 
Also  called  "Banana  Rubber." 

MANDARNVA  RUBBER. — A  low  grade  of  South  American  gum, 
somewhat  like  Ceara  rubber.  Little  known.  Is  said  to  grow  on 
the  dry  arid  uplands  of  the  interior.  Is  one  of  a  number  of  gums 
that  bear  the  native  names,  Cauchin,  Pau,  and  Massaranduba. 

[Revue  Coloniale  (Paris) — "Report  on  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo."] 

ABBA  RUBBER. — This  is  an  African  rubber,  from  Lagos.  It 
probably  is  the  product  of  the  Ficus  Vogelii.  It  is  low  grade  rub- 
ber and  cures  soft  and  short.  There  is  a  large  percentage  of  resin 
in  the  milk.  \T>r.  ^-  Morris,  "Cantor  Lectures,"  1898.] 

MANGA-ICE  RUBBER. — Argentine  republic.  It  is  very  abun- 
dant. Produces  good  rubber. 

[E.  L.  Baker,  Consul  at  Buenos  Ayres,  U.  S.  Consular  Reports,  1892.] 

MABOA  GUM. — Said  to  be  produced  from  a  species  of  Ficus 

in  Santiago  de  Cuba. 

[Consul  Reimer,   United  States  Consular  Reports,   1892.] 

DURANGO  RUBBER. — Said  to  be  produced  from  a  plant  of  the 
genus  Cynanchum,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Asclepiadeae, 
found  in  the  Mexican  state  of  Durango.  A  specimen  was  exhi- 
bited at  the  Philadelphia  Centennial  Exhibition  in  1876.  Probably 
identical  with  a  rubber  of  which  a  sample  was  sent  to  the  writer 
from  Mexico  in  1896.  Very  black,  sticky,  and  full  of  vegetable 
matter.  Would  rank  with  a  fair  Accra  flake. 

[Henry  H.  Rusby,   M.  D.] 

BRAZILIAN  BIRDLIME. — The  sap  of  the  Artocarpus  incisa  is 
used  by  the  Brazilians  for  birdlime  and  glue.  When  coagulated 
and  dried  the  gum  is  white  and  somewhat  similar  to  Gutta-percha. 
At  ordinary  temperatures  it  is  hard  and  brittle,  but  with  a  little 
heat  becomes  plastic,  and  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  is 
soft  and  very  sticky.  It  is  soluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  and 
insoluble  in  alcohol  and  water.  A  similar  gum  of  a  chocolate 
brown  color  comes  from  the  Urostigma  Gamelleira. 

[R.  H.  Biffen,  Botanical  Laboratory,  Cambridge.] 

BEIRA  RUBBER. — Another  name  for  stick  rubber,  gathered  on 
the  east  coast  of  Africa,  and  shipped  from  Beira. 

ROOT  RUBBER. — A  rubber  obtained  from  the  roots  of  a  semi- 


BASTARD  OR  PSEUDO  GUMS.  27 

herbaceous  plant  known  as  the  Carpodinus  sanceolatus.     Very 
abundant  in  the  open  grassy  country  of  the  Congo  Free  State. 

[Dr.  D.  Morris,  "Cantor  Lectures,"  1898.] 

AMAZONIAN  RESIN  RUBBERS. — The  valley  of  the  Amazon 
contains  many  trees  and  plants  that  are  caoutchouc  producers,  but 
which  are  generally  neglected,  as  the  gatherers  are  seeking  the 
more  valuable  Hevea.  Among  these  are  mentioned  the  trees 
known  under  the  native  names  of  Amapa,  Sucuba,  Surva,  Taman- 
guiro,  Molango,  etc.  All  of  these  show  a  marked  percentage  of 
resin  in  the  milk.  [Torres.] 

BASTARD  OR  PSEUDO  GUMS. 

BALATA  is  the  gum  of  the  "bully"  or  "bullet"  tree,  found  in 
British  and  Dutch  Guiana,  and  in  Venezuela.  The  Venezuelan 
product  is  known  as  "block"  Balata ;  that  from  the  Guianas  as 
"sheet."  Balata  also  differs  in  color,  the  white  being  considered 
better  than  the  reddish.  In  character  this  gum  occupies  a  position 
between  India-rubber  and  Gutta-percha,  combining  in  a  degree  the 
elasticity  of  one  with  the  ductility  of  the  other,  and  freely  softening 
and  becoming  plastic  and  easily  molded  in  hot  water.  The  milk, 
diluted  with  water,  is  said  to  be  drunk  by  the  natives  as  a  substitute 
for  cow's  milk.  Balata  is  dried  ordinarily  by  evaporation.  A  more 
rapid  coagulation  is  effected  by  the  use  of  spirits  of  wine.  Alum 
and  sulphate  of  aluminum  are  sometimes  used  to  coagulate,  but 
are  not  very  satisfactory.  The  gum  is  sometimes  mixed  during 
the  gathering  with  the  milk  that  produces  gum  known  as  Touch- 
pong  and  Barta-Balli.  Balata  shrinks  in  washing  from  25  to 
50  per  cent.  It  is  used  principally  in  the  manufacture  of  belting 
and  for  insulation  work.  It  has  been  utilized  also  for  golf  balls 
and  as  a  substitute  for  India-rubber  in  dress  shields. 

PONTIANAK  is  a  cheap  inelastic  gum  imported  from  a  town 
of  the  same  name  in  Borneo.  "Jelutong"  is  the  import  name  in 
the  United  States,  besides  which  the  names  "Fluvia"  and  "Gam- 
bria"  have  also  been  applied  to  it.  The  gum  is  used  for  a  friction 
and  filler.  It  is  whitish  in  color,  looking  something  like  marsh- 
mallow  candy,  smells  strongly  of  petroleum,  and  oxidizes  readily 
on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  believed  to  be  the  product  of  the 
tree  known  as  the  Dyera  costula. 

[Consul  R.  Wildman,  United  States  Consular  Reports,  1892.] 


28  BASTARD  OR  PSEUDO  GUMS. 

TUNO  is  a  trade  name  of  uncertain  origin  applied  to  a  gum 
gathered  principally  in  Nicaragua  and  Honduras.  It  is  the  pro- 
duct of  what  has  been  called  the  "sterile  rubber  tree"  and  also  the 
"male  rubber  tree"  of  Nicaragua.  The  milk  is  coagulated  with 
the  aid  of  heat.  The  gum  is  but  slightly  elastic,  is  very  sticky 
when  heated,  and  is  cheap.  It  is  used  as  a  friction  gum,  and  is 
also  mixed  with  Balata  in  the  manufacture  of  belting.  Sometimes 
is  is  sold  under  the  name  "Seiba  gum,"'  its  identity  being  lost  by 
ingenious  massing  and  manipulation  under  water.  Nicaragua 
rubber  adulterated  with  "Tuno"  in  coagulation  soon  hardens  and 
loses  its  elasticity.  Also  spelled  "Toonu"  and  "Tumi." 

ALMEIDINA. — This  comes  from  West  Africa,  particularly 
from  the  Cameroons  and  Angola,  and  has  been  found  in  the  Solo- 
mon Islands.  It  is  obtained  from  the  tuber-like  roots  of  a  tree 
or  shrub,  and  comes  to  market  in  small  and  sulphur-colored 
nodules,  resembling  potatoes,  for  which  reason  it  has  been  called 
"potato  gum."  When  broken  open  these  balls  look  like  putty, 
and  although  quite  brittle  when  cold,  the  gum  easily  softens  in 
warm  water  and  may  be  drawn  out  in  threads,  which  are  possessed 
of  some  elasticity.  It  is  completely  melted  at  240°  F.,  and 
remains  rather  sticky  after  melting.  It  almost  completely  dissolves 
in  cold  benzine ;  in  fact,  nearly  all  of  the  solvents  ordinarily  used 
in  rubber  manufacture  dissolve  it.  It  mixes  and  dissolves  with 
rubber  in  almost  any  proportion  and  up  to  25  per  cent,  at  least. 
Not  only  does  it  not  injure  the  rubber,  but  is  said  to  be  beneficial 
to  it.  In  working  on  the  mill  a  pungent  vapor  arises  from  the 
mass,  which,  however,  has  no  poisonous  effect.  In  using  this  gum, 
a  little  caustic  soda  sometimes  is  added  to  the  water  when  it  is 
being  washed;  other  manufacturers  add  tannic  acid.  Animal  or 
vegetable  fixed  oils  do  not  dissolve  Almeidina,  and,  therefore  when 
mixed  with  it  are  apt  to  rot  it.  Mixed  with  Gutta-percha  this  gum 
is  practically  indestructible.  The  name  "Almeidina"  is  that  of  the 
first  important  shipper  of  the  gum ;  in  England  the  spelling  "Alma- 
dina"  has  come  into  use.  The  gum  is  known  also  as  "Euphorbia 
gum."  [Thomas  Christy  and  W.  Lascelles-Scott.] 

GUM  CHICLE. — A  gummy  resinous  substance  found  around 
the  seeds  of  the  Achras  sapota,  a  tree  growing  abundantly  in  the 
warm  damp  regions  of  Mexico  and  also  in  portions  of  Central 


BASTARD  OR  PSEUDO  GUMS.  29 

America.  Chicle  should  be  of  a  whitish  color,  odorous,  and  free 
from  impurities,  but  often  is  adulterated  with  an  inferior_pink  or 
reddish  soil.  It  is  solid  and  brittle  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but 
becomes  plastic  when  placed  in  hot  water.  It  is  quite  soft  at 
49°  C.  (120°  F.).  It  is  used  chiefly  in  the  United  States 
in  the  manufacture  of  chewing  gums,  and  to  a  small  extent 
in  England  for  adhesive  plasters.  It  has  been  used  for  modeling 
purposes  and  for  mixture  with  India-rubber  for  insulation  work. 

CATIVO  GUM. — This  comes  from  the  sap  of  the  mangrove 
called  "Cativo"  in  the  United  States  of  Colombia.  The  gum  is 
fluid  at  130°  F.,  and  if  the  temperature  is  raised  to  212°  F. 
it  is  easily  filtered  and  impurities  removed,  and  a  somewhat  objec- 
tionable smell  greatly  lessened.  The  gum  is  then  of  a  clear  red- 
dish brown  color.  It  mixes  easily  with  rubber  and  is  said  to  pro- 
duce a  very  tough  compound.  [Spon's  Encyclopedia.] 

TOUCHPONG  GUM. — This  is  without  doubt  a  rubber  gum, 
entirely  distinct  from  Balata.  The  rubber  dries  in  strips  on  the 
trees,  and  what  little  of  it  comes  to  market  has  not  been  recognized 
as  a  distinct  sort.  Samples  sent  to  England,  however,  have  been 
favorably  reported  on.  It  is  found  throughout  the  Guianas.  Prob- 
ably from  Sapium  biglandulosum.  Spelled  "Touchpong"  by  Jen- 
man  ;  "Touchpong"  by  Morris ;  "Pouckpong"  by  Dr.  Hugo  Miller. 

[Dr.  D.  Morris,  "Cantor  Lectures,"  1898.] 

ABYSSINIAN  GUTTA. — An  adhesive  acid  gum  of  an  earthy 
brown  color,  similar  to  common  gutta  in  external  appearance. 
Softens  in  water,  but  keeps  a  very  great  elasticity.  On  drying 
it  remains  exceedingly  adhesive,  therefore  could  not  be  used  in 
place  of  Gutta-percha,  but  with  proper  treatment  would  undoubt- 
edly make  an  excellent  friction  gum. 

[Supplied  by  Mr.  Thomas  Christy.] 

YELLOW  GUTTA. — This  comes  from  the  Sunda  Isles,  from  the 
genus  Payena.  It  is  practically  a  compound  of  India-rubber  with 
two  resins.  One  of  these  is  crystalizable  and  the  other  is  pitchy. 
If  the  raw  material  is  treated  with  boiling  alcohol  the  resins  are 
taken  off  and  the  remaining  product  appears  to  be  good  India- 
rubber.  [Edouard  Heckel  and  Fr.  Schlagdenhauffen,  1888.] 

GUTTA  GREK. — A  gum  that  comes  from  Palembang,  in 
Straits  Settlements.  It  appears  very  much  like  India-rubber,  but 


30  BASTARD  OR  PSEUDO  GUMS. 

is  permanently  softened  and  destroyed  by  heat  sufficient  to  melt 
it.    It  smells  like  Gutta-percha  rather  than  India-rubber. 

[T.  Bolas  in  Colonial  and  Indian  Exhibition  Reports,   1887.] 

GUTTA  BASSIA. — Found  between  Upper  Senegal  and  the  Nile. 
Has  the  appearance  and  apparently  many  of  the  properties  of  Gut- 
ta-percha. Softens  in  warm  water  and  becomes  glutinous  at  the 
boiling  point.  Is  soluble  in  sulphide  of  carbon,  chloroform,  ben- 
zole, and  alcohol.  Can  be  kneaded  in  water  as  easily  as  ordinary 
gutta.  [Heckel  and  Schlagdenhauffen.] 

GUTTA-SHEA. — Said  to  be  the  nearest  approach  to  Gutta- 
percha  among  African  products ;  obtained  from  the  "Shea,"  "Ga- 
lam,"  or  "Bambouk"  butter-tree  (Butyrospermum  Parkii.)  The 
butter  is  the  solid  fat  contained  in  the  seeds  and  is  used  in  making 
hard  soaps.  Gutta-shea  is  separated  from  the  fat  in  the  course 
of  the  soap  making  and  is  found  to  be  present  to  the  extent  of 
from  5  to  75  per  cent.  A  kind  of  Gutta-percha  is  also  obtained 
from  the  trunk  of  the  tree  in  small  quantities.  Also  known  as 

"Karite  gum."  [G.  F.  Scott  Elliott,  M.  A.,  F.  L.  S.,  Botanist.] 

GUTTA  TERAP. — A  substance  closely  allied  to  both  Gutta- 
percha  and  India-rubber;  used  in  Singapore  in  the  manufacture 
of  birdlime;  is  made  from  the  juice  of  the  Artocarpus  Kunstleri. 
Also  known  as  "Gutta-trap." 

[Dr.  D.  Morris,  "Cantor  Lectures,"  1898.] 

GUTTA  HORFOOT. — This  is  a  vegetable  juice  sent  in  sealed 
tins  from  the  Straits  Settlements,  which  yields  a  material  like 
India-rubber  of  fair  quality.  No  way  of  coagulating  the  juice, 
where  it  is  gathered,  seems  to  be  known. 

[T.  Bolas  in  Colonial  and  Indian  Exhibition  Reports,  1887.] 

TALOTALO  GUM. — Found  in  the  Fiji  archipelago.  Comes 
from  Tabernoemontana  Thursioni  (Baker.)  The  gum  is  hard, 
gutta  like,  and  without  elasticity.  [Kew  Annual  Report,  1877.] 

CATTIMANDU  GUM. — This  is  one  of  the  Euphorbium  gums, 
the  natives  using  the  milk  as  a  cement  to  fasten  knives  in  their 
handles.  Under  the  influence  of  heat  it  becomes  soft  and  viscid 
and  when  dry  is  very  brittle.  It  is  probably  about  as  useful  as 
Indian  gutta.  Found  in  Vizagapatam,  India.  [Hon-  w-  Elliott.] 

TIRUCALLI  GUM. — This  is  a  Euphorbium  gum,  from  the  In- 
dian plant  known  as  milk  hedge.  The  milk  of  this  plant  is  used 


BASTARD  OR  PSEUDO  GUMS.  31 

for  various  purposes,  chiefly  medicinal,  in  India,  and  has  been  sug- 
gested as  a  substitute  for  Gutta-percha.  Like  Gum  Euphorbium, 
it  has  a  very  acrid  character,  and  the  collection  of  it  is  a  very  dan- 
gerous operation  to  the  eyes.  When  dry  it  becomes  very  brittle, 
but  when  warmed  in  water  is  quite  plastic. 

[India-Rubber  Journal,  Sept.  2,  1885.] 
COORONGITE. — Sometimes  known  as  Australian  Caoutchouc. 

An  India-rubber-like  material,  discovered  many  years  ago  near 
Salt  creek,  a  short  distance  from  the  coast  of  South  Australia.  It 
was  first  observed  in  little  hollows  of  sand  and  resembled  patches 
of  dried  leather,  but  it  generally  occurred  in  the  swamps.  It  is 
supposed  to  be  of  the  petroleum  series.  Other  scientific  authorities 
in  England  and  America  ascribe  to  it  a  vegetable  origin  and  regard 
the  gum  as  exuding  from  a  plant  or  lichen. 

[India-Rubber  Journal,  Sept.  2,  1885.] 

PALA  GUM. — Found  in  Assam  and  Ceylon.  The  wood  and 
the  bark  are  valued  in  India  for  their  medicinal  qualities.  The 
tree  yields  an  abundant  milky  juice,  which  after  coagulation  acts 
something  like  Gutta-percha.  It  readily  softens  in  hot  water  and 
takes  impressions,  which  are  retained  when  cold.  Also  known  as 
" Indian  Gutta-percha."  Comes  from  the  Dichopsis  elliptica.  It 
has  been  used  as  an  adulterant  of  Singapore  gutta  for  some  years. 
It  was  used  also  as  birdlime  or  cement  and  keeps  well  under  water. 
Is  hard  and  brittle  when  cold.  The  resin  or  crystalban  is  easily 
removed  by  boiling  alcohol  and  the  residue  appears  to  be  a  very 

fair  gutta.  [Kew  Bulletin,  1892.] 

GOA  GUM. — Discovered  by  Senbor  Da  Costa.  It  is  a  gum 
that  comes  from  the  mival-cantem,  which  grows  wild  in  the  Cou- 
can  district,  and  is  also  planted  for  hedges.  Chocolate  in  color, 
softens  under  heat,  is  easily  molded,  and  thoroughly  waterproof. 

MACWARRIEBALLI  GUM. — A  rubber  gathered  in  British  Guiana 
from  the  Forsteronia  gracilis.  From  the  report  of  the  director 
of  the  Kew  gardens,  to  whom  a  sample  was  submitted,  it  would 
seem  that,  while  the  gum  is  at  present  unfit  for  use  in  place  of 
ordinary  caoutchouc,  because  of  its  stickiness,  it  might  be  of  value 
in  cements,  frictions,  and  the  like. 

[G.  S.  Jenman,  Botanic  Gardens,  Georgetown,  1888.] 

CAPE  CATTAMANDU. — Derived  from  an  Euphorbia  found  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  juice  is  so  acrid  as  to  give  intense 


32  BASTARD  OR  PSEUDO  GUMS. 

irritation  to  any  part  of  the  body  with  which  it  may  come  in  con- 
tact. The  gum  has  been  used  as  an  anti-fouling  dressing  for  ship's 
bottoms,  but  is  little  known  otherwise. 

MANGEGATU  GUM. — This  comes  from  Vizagapatam  and  is  a 
gum  of  the  bastard  gutta  type,  similar  to  gutta  trap,  and  is  said 
to  come  from  the  Ficus  Indica. 

MUDAR  GUM. — This  comes  from  an  Asclepias,  commonly 
known  as  gigantic  swallow  wort  (Calotropis  giganteus.)  The 
shrub  is  found  throughout  the  southern  provinces  of  India  and 
grows  to  a  height  of  from  six  to  ten  feet.  Produces  a  gutta-like 
substance,  which  becomes  plastic  in  hot  water,  and  in  other  ways 
acts  somewhat  like  Gutta-percha.  It  insulates  badly,  but  is  recom- 
mended for  waterproofing. 

[Dr.  Eugene  Obach,  "Cantor  Lectures,"  1898.] 

BARTA-BALLI. — One  of  the  best  known  native  trees  in  the 
Guianas.  The  milk  of  this  tree  has  usually  been  mixed  with  Balata 
milk  and  is  said  to  give  it  its  reddish  tint.  The  gum  when  dried 
by  evaporation  is  rather  sticky  and  soft,  but  when  precipitated  in 
alcohol  is  dry  and  firm.  Reports  from  England  are  rather  con- 
demnatory as  the  gum  is  said  to  absorb  a  great  deal  of  water  in 
washing,  which  it  retains  very  obstinately.  The  same  rubber, 
dried  by  precipitation  by  spirits  of  wine,  is  said  to  be  very  brittle. 
Known  also  as  Cumaka-balli.  [G.  s.  Jenman.] 

SARUA  RUBBER. — Found  in  the  Fiji  archipelago,  from  Alsto- 
nia  plumosa  (Labill.)  Formerly  collected  largely,  now  but  little 
conies  to  market.  Natives  take  no  interest  in  its  collection.  Is 
soft  at  first,  but  hardens  after  a  time  and  becomes  inelastic.  Is 
about  the  color  and  consistency  of  putty.  Natives  collect  juice 
in  three  months  and  it  coagulates  almost  at  once.  Comes  from 
stems  and  leaves.  No  juice  in  trunk  of  tree. 

[Kew  Annual  Report,  1877.] 

JINTAWAN. — A  bastard  Gutta-percha — perhaps  Pontianak — 
mentioned  by  Thomas  Hancock  in  four  patents  and  also  by  Taylor 
and  Duncan. 

.  ZAPOTINE. — A  name  for  a  solution  made  from  Gum  Chicle 
dissolved  in  alcohol  which  is  treated  in  the  following  manner: 
According  to  one  process,  Zapotine  is  exposed  to  carbolic  acid  gas, 
or  to  compounds  containing  carbon,  for  vulcanization.  In  an- 
other, in  which  it  was  claimed  that  it  was  converted  into  a  vul- 


BASTARD  OR  PSEUDO  GUMS.  33 

canite,  the  Chicle  solution  was  combined  with  white  lead  and  sul- 
phur, and  vulcanized. 

MULE  GUM. — Another  name  for  Ceara  rubber. 

SUSU-POKO  (meaning  English  tree  milk). — A  gum  from  a 
tree  growing  in  the  Malay  peninsula,  used  in  the  place  of  Gutta- 
percha,  after  being  cleansed  and  treated  with  chloride  of  sulphur. 
Mentioned  by  Leonard  Wray  in  1858.. 

TALAING  RUBBER. — An  almost  black  rubber  which,  when  cut  in- 
to, is  white  and  porous  presenting  a  honeycombed  appearance,  the 
cavities  being  filled  with  a  watery  fluid.  It  is  quite  tough  and  elastic, 
and  appears  to  be  of  good  quality.  It  comes  from  a  creeper  which 
is  abundant  in  the  Philippines,  in  Malacca,  and  Indo-China.  The 
juice  is  very  abundant,  and  is  coagulated  by  being  boiled  in  water. 
LM.  H.  Pierre,  formerly  director  of  Saigon  Botanical  Gardens.] 

CANOE  GUMS. — From  the  bark  of  the  breadfruit  tree,  which 
is  found  so  plentifully  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  archipelago, 
comes  a  thick  mucilageous  fluid  which  hardens  by  exposure  to 
the  air.  When  boiled  with  cocoanut  oil  it  makes  a  tough  rubber- 
like  substance  wholly  waterproof,  and  very  lasting.  It  is  used  or- 
dinarily for  waterproofing  seams  of  canoes,  pails,  etc.  It  is  also 
used,  when  fresh,  as  a  birdlime. 

PICKEUM  GUM. — A  shrub  that  is  said  to  be  very  plentiful  in 
Central  America  and  Mexico,  produces  a  gum  fully  equal  to  Afri- 
can flake.  The  gum  is  gathered  by  cutting  the  shrubs  and  expres- 
sing the  juice.  A  machine  for  this  purpose  is  all  that  is  needed  to 
add  another  valuable  rubber  to  the  products  of  the  countries  named. 

NEEN  RUBBER. — A  rubber-like  gum  said  to  be  produced  by 
an  insect,  reported  from  Yucatan.  The  insect  belongs  to  the  Coc- 
cus family,  feeds  on  the  mango  tree,  and  swarms  in  those  regions. 
It  is  of  considerable  size,  yellowish  brown  in  color,  and  emits  a 
peculiar  oily  odor.  The  body  of  the  insect  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  grease,  which  is  highly  prized  by  the  natives  for  its 
medicinal  properties  in  skin  diseases.  When  exposed  to  great 
heat,  the  lighter  oils  of  the  grease  volatilize,  leaving  a  tough  wax 
which  resembles  shellac.  When  burnt  this  wax  produces  a  thick 
semi-fluid  mass,  like  a  solution  of  India-rubber. 

SIEBA  GUM. — See  Tuno. 

JELATONG. — See  Pontianak. 

FLUVIA. — See  Pontianak. 


CHAPTER  III. 

I.— DIVISIONS  IN  RUBBER  MANUFACTURE  AND  PRIMARY  PROCESSES  IN 
MANIPULATING  THE  GUM. 

THE  foremost  European  manufacturers  of  rubber  goods,  as 
a  rule,  make  everything  in  the  line  of  compounded  rubber,  hard 
or  soft,  and  in  addition  often  are  large  producers  of  Gutta-percha 
goods.  In  the  United  States,  on  the  other  hand,  the  tendency  has 
been  to  specialize  the  industry  and  as  a  result  it  has  divided  itself 
naturally  into  the  following  general  lines:  Mechanical  rubber 
goods ;  Pneumatic  and  solid  tires ;  Molded  work ;  Druggists',  sur- 
gical, and  stationers'  sundries ;  Dental  and  stamp  rubbers ;  Surface 
clothing;  Carriage  cloth;  Mackintoshes  and  proofing;  Boots  and 
shoes ;  Insulated  wire ;  Hard  rubber ;  Cements ;  Notions ;  Plasters ; 
and  Reclaimed  rubber. 

The  following  brief  description  of  the  manipulation  of  rubber 
in  these  various  lines  is  given  simply  because  there  are  superin- 
tendents and  managers  who  are  experts  in  one  line,  say  for  exam- 
ple, of  Druggists'  sundries,  but  who  may  be  wholly  unfamiliar 
with  even  the  machinery  used  in  other  lines. 

MECHANICAL  RUBBER  GOODS. — This  line  of  rubber  manufac- 
ture, which  is  also  known  in  Europe  as  technical  rubber  goods, 
embraces  all  the  heavier  combinations  of  India-rubber,  metal,  and 
fabric  which  are  used  in  engineering  and  industrial  lines.  It 
covers,  for  example,  belting,  packings,  hose,  and  special  articles 
of  almost  endless  variety  and  description. 

This  portion  of  the  rubber  business  has  always  been  the  pio- 
neer in  the  production  of  new  compounds,  new  processes,  and 
better  and  heavier  machinery.  Its  manufacturers  always  have 
welcomed  new  grades  of  rubber,  have  been  the  first  to  utilize  those 
that  were  a  drug  on  the  market,  because  of  lack  of  knowledge  as  to 
their  manipulation,  were  familiar  with  the  uses  of  reclaimed  rub- 
ber while  yet  other  lines  were  simply  considering  its  use,  and  with 
hundreds  of  compounds  and  cures,  with  a  broad  knowledge  of 
industrial  achievement  in  all  lines,  they  have  often  pointed  the  way 
for  manufacturers  in  other  lines  to  follow,  to  the  betterment  of 
their  goods  or  their  pockets. 

34 


BOOTS  AND  SHOES.  35 

The  mechanical  rubber  goods  factory  has,  to  begin  with,  the 
same  outfit  in  the  way  of  machines  for  manipulating  the  crude 
gum  as  have  the  other  lines.  Their  mixing  mills,  however,  are 
often  heavier,  and  their  calenders  run  at  higher  speeds,  while  they 
have  in  addition  enormously  heavy  hydraulic  belt  presses,  huge 
vulcanizers,  and  scores  of  special  machines  designed  for  indi- 
vidual problems  required  for  their  line  of  work  alone,  or  perhaps 
for  a  single  factory  alone.  The  kind  of  vulcanization  used  in  this 
work  is  (i)  open  steam  heat,  where  the  goods  are  buried  in 
French  talc  or  wrapped  in  fabric;  or  (2)  dry  heat,  where  they  are 
confined  by  molds,  and  held  in  a  steam  press  during  the  cure ;  or 
(3)  where  the  goods,  as  in  the  case  of  belts,  are  molded  between 
the  platens  of  the  press  itself,  while  curing.  Even  in  this  line  of 
work  there  are  some  concerns  that  only  do  special  parts  of  it. 
For  example,  there  are  certain  large  factories  that  make  only  cer- 
tain types  of  packings,  which  have  a  worldwide  sale,  and  on  which 
they  are  run  continuously.  Many  of  these  mills  also  are  large 
producers  of  tires. 

BOOTS  AND  SHOES. — The  manufacture  of  rubber  boots  and 
shoes,  although  apparently  a  simple  business,  not  only  requires 
large  capital  but  is  one  that  has  often  been  overtaken  by  disaster. 
It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that,  given  the  same  com- 
pounds, the  same  machinery,  and  the  same  skilled  workmen,  no 
two  mills  are  able  to  turn  out  exactly  the  same  grades  of  goods. 
Quality  is  one  ingredient  that  may  or  may  not  be  added  to  the 
goods,  no  matter  how  honest  the  endeavor.  That  there  are  rea- 
sons for  this,  no  one  can  doubt,  and  that  the  day  will  come  when 
this  branch  of  manufacture  will  be  an  exact  science  is  probably 
true.  That,  however,  will  entail  a  definite  knowledge  of  rubber 
from  the  moment  it  first  sees  the  light  as  a  creamy  sap  exuding 
from  the  tree,  through  every  event  in  its  life —  in  coagulation, 
transit,  storage,  factory  manipulation,  compounding,  calendering, 
curing,  its  death  in  the  service  of  man,  and  its  later  resurrection 
in  the  process  of  reclaiming. 

Nor  is  this  all.  There  will  be  a  need  for  exact  information 
regarding  the  ingredients  added  in  the  course  of  compounding, 
their  relation  one  to  another,  mechanically  and  chemically,  so  long 
as  they  be  joined  together.  This,  coupled  with  atmospheric  and 


36  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE. 

climatic  conditions,  not  to  say  a  profound  knowledge  of  the  errors 
and  accidents  due  to  the  ignorance,  prejudice,  or  carelessness  of 
the  ordinary  workman,  constitute  so  complex  a  problem  that  suc- 
cessful manufacturers  to-day  feel  fairly  safe  in  frankly  stating 
to  would-be  competitors  that  they  have  no  need  to  hide  their  for- 
mulas, as  they  are  but  a  small  part  of  the  problem. 

In  the  complete  rubber  shoe  plant  there  are  found,  for  initial 
equipment,  washing  rolls,  mixers,  refining  mills,  and  calenders 
such  as  most  of  the  other  lines  employ.  In  addition,  there  are 
special  calenders,  with  engraved  rolls  for  shoe-upper  work ;  others, 
also,  with  engraved  rolls  for  soleing;  presses  for  molding  boot 
heels,  sole-cutting  machines,  and,  of  course,  vulcanizers.  As  this 
class  of  goods  is  cured  by  what  is  known  as  the  "dry  heat" — that 
is,  by  being  confined  in  dry  hot  air  for  several  hours — it  will 
readily  be  seen  that  it  is  radically  different  business  from  mechan- 
ical rubber  goods,  for  instance.  These  dry  heaters  are  simply 
large  air-tight  rooms,  fitted  with  steam  pipes  for  heating,  lined 
with  tin,  double  walled  to  prevent  radiation,  into  which  hundreds 
of  pairs  of  boots  or  shoes  are  run  on  skeleton  cars,  to  undergo  the 
process  of  vulcanization.  The  manufacture  of  rubber  footwear 
in  brief,  therefore,  consists  in  washing,  drying,  compounding  and 
calendering  the  rubber,  the  cutting  of  the  calendered  sheets  into 
various  shapes  for  cementing  over  lasts  in  the  shapes  desired,  the 
varnishing,  and  the  dry  heat  cure. 

To-day  the  ingredients  used  in  this  compounding  are  almost 
identical  in  all  of  the  American  mills.  In  Europe,  however,  there 
is  a  wider  difference,  and  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  rubber  shoe 
compounding  experienced  the  same  revolution  that  other  lines 
have  known,  now  that  the  price  of  crude  rubber  has  gone  so  high. 
The  last  great  changes  in  shoe  compounding,  which  came  between 
1878  and  1882,  were  radical  and  of  value  to  both  manufacturer 
and  consumer.  That  the  present  compounds  are  perfect,  or  that 
the  ingredients  used  are  the  best,  no  one  can  affirm.  Besides,  as 
all  other  lines  have  progressed,  is  it  not  now  the  turn  of  the  boot 
and  shoe  trade? 

DRUGGISTS',  SURGICAL,  AND  STATIONERS'  SUNDRIES. — This 
part  of  the  rubber  business  entails  more  skilful  manipulation  and 
more  finesse  in  manufacture  than  almost  any  other  line.  An  atom- 


DRUGGISTS'  SUNDRIES.  37 

izer  bulb,  for  example,  must  be  graceful  in  shape,  with  delicately 
smooth  surface,  of  good  color,  and  either  of  the  non-blooming 
variety  or  so  near  it  that  the  sulphurous  efflorescence  will  be  so 
slight  as  to  pass  unnoticed,  while  in  mechanical  goods  a  length  of 
garden  hose  may  be  of  any  color,  may  bloom  until  crusted  with 
sulphur  crystals,  but  if  it  "stands  up  to  work/'  it  is  the  best,  and 
is  beautiful  in  the  eyes  of  the  trade. 

The  question  of  colored  rubber  is  one  that  has  interested  this 
branch  of  the  business  from  its  inception.  In  none  other  is  so 
much  white  rubber  made  and,  incidentally,  none  others  get  such 
good  effects.  This  insistence  by  customers  for  white  goods  and 
by  physicians  for  black  containing  no  trace  of  lead  has  entailed  a 
deal  of  trouble  upon  this  trade,  for  the  manufacturers  until  re- 
cently could  not  go  into  the  open  market  and  buy  a  high  grade 
of  white  recovered  rubber,  while  of  black  there  is  ever  an  ample 
supply,  and  in  black  goods  to  suit  the  physician  he  is  forced  to 
substitute  a  dry  bulky  vegetable  black  for  oxide  of  lead  or  white 
lead,  and  then  not  get  so  good  a  result. 

The  machinery  used  is  very  similar  to  the  equipment  of  a 
mechanical  goods  factory,  but  the  scale  is  smaller.  Washers, 
grinders,  calenders,  tubing  machines,  steam  vulcanizers,  and  small 
steam  presses  are  the  machines  used.  Naturally  special  machines 
are  employed  in  certain  parts  of  the  work,  but  their  use  is  limited 
to  a  few  factories  and  to  comparatively  insignificant  specialties. 

The  feature  in  this  trade  which  stands  out  most  distinctly 
from  other  rubber  lines  is  perhaps  the  manufacture  of  hollow 
work,  as  atomizers,  syringes,  breast-pumps,  and  a  host  of  other 
balls  and  bulbs.  The  parts  for  these  are  cut  from  sheets  of  com- 
pounded rubber,  cemented  together  at  the  edges,  inflated  to  the 
general  shape  of  the  mold  and  cured  in  an  open  steam  heat.  In 
order  that  the  ball  may  perfectly  fill  the  mold  during  the  cure,  a 
few  drops  of  water  or  a  little  ammonia  are  put  inside  of  it  which, 
swelling  under  the  heat,  develops  pressure  enough  to  perfectly 
shape  it  and  add  to  its  outer  surface  the  finish  found  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  mold. 

The  difficulties  that  manufacturers  in  this  line  experience  in 
making  perfect  goods  are  legion,  as  they  are  in  other  lines.  They 
are  added  to  by  the  fact  that  the  trade,  as  already  indicated,  de- 


38  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE. 

mand  articles  of  beauty  from  a  gum  that  was  designed  for  utility 
solely.  A  trace  of  black  in  a  white  compound  may  spoil  hundreds 
of  dollars  worth  of  goods,  nor  can  such  trace  be  rubbed  off, 
scoured  out,  or  eradicated,  after  vulcanization.  Hence,  the  whites, 
blacks,  reds,  and  other  colors  must  be  mixed  in  separate  mills,  and 
the  trimmings  and  scraps  kept  sedulously  apart. 

Pure  gum — that  is,  rubber  compounded  only  by  sulphur  or 
some  other  vulcanizing  agent — is  also  largely  produced  in  this 
line.  For  example  many  make  what  is  known  as  dental  dam,  the 
pure  shedt  used  by  dentists.  This  is  generally  a  sulphur  com- 
pound cured  in  open  steam.  Certain  manufacturers,  however, 
practice  the  vapor  cure  with  good  success  in  making  these  goods. 
This  cure  gives  a  beautiful  finish,  but  if  it  is  not  done  with  great 
skill  it  is  disastrous  to  both  the  workman  and  the  goods. 

Dental  dam,  surgical  bandages,  and  stationers5  bands  repre- 
sent the  highest  priced  and  least  compounded  goods,  while  stop- 
ples, erasive  rubber,  and  common  tubing  represent  the  other  ex- 
treme. Between  the  two  is  a  latitude  that  allows  of  a  variety  of 
combinations  and  compounds  that  no  man  can  number. 

CLOTHING,  CARRIAGE  CLOTH,,  MACKINTOSHES,  and  PROOFING. 
— This  business  may  be  handled,  in  a  measure,  as  the  mechanical 
goods  business  is;  that  is,  the  gums  mixed  by  heat  on  ordinary 
mixers,  and  then  spread  by  calenders  on  the  fabrics  which  give  the 
articles  their  strength.  This  is  the  manner  in  which  rubber  sur- 
face clothing  is  run.  The  machinery  is  simple,  since,  in  ciothing, 
the  parts  are  cemented  together  and  cured  in  dry  heat.  In  car- 
riage cloths,  after  calendering,  the  goods  are  grained  on  embos- 
sing rolls,  varnished,  and  run  into  a  dry  heat. 

The  Mackintosh  and  proofing  business,  however,  is  some- 
what a  departure  from  this.  Here  the  gum,  after  mixing  dry,  is 
usually  put  in  churns  with  a  cheap  solvent,  and  reduced  to  a  solu- 
tion. It  is  then  applied  to  the  cloth  with  a  knife  spreader. 

For  double-texture  work,  a  simple  doubling  machine  brings 
two  surfaces  together.  A  portion  of  the  business  that  has  divided 
itself  from  the  rest,  is  what  is  known  as  proofing  for  the  trade. 
Here  manufacturers  simply  coat  the  cloth  and  sell  it  to  others,  who 
make  it  up  into  garments,  or  anything  in  fabric  or  rubber  for 
which  there  may  be  a  call.  The  mackintosh  manufacturer  to-day 


PNEUMATIC  TIRES.  39 

not  only  is  familiar  with  a  great  variety  of  rubber  gums  and  ingre- 
dients used  in  compounding,  but  is  also  an  expert  in  fabrics,  as  his 
business  is  really  closely  akin  to  the  tailoring  business. 

PNEUMATIC  TIRES. — Although  the  tire  business  seemed  at 
first  to  be  a  natural  part  of  the  mechanical  rubber  goods  business, 
it  really  proved  itself,  later,  to  be  a  business  wholly  distinct  from 
it.  Even  the  large  manufacturers  of  mechanical  goods  who  began 
tire  making  on  a  considerable  scale,  keep  this  part  of  their  business 
distinct  from  other  branches  as  a  rule,  running  it  as  an  entirely 
separate  department.  Aside  from  this,  large  concerns  have  sprung 
up  that  manufacture  nothing  but  tires,  and  although  some  of  these 
use  their  scrap  and  refuse  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  mechan- 
ical goods,  they  do  not  all  find  it  profitable. 

The  general  machinery  used  in  making  tires  is  the  same  that 
is  used  in  the  work  of  preparing  rubber  in  the  other  lines.  There 
are  two  general  classes  of  tires  manufactured,  however :  those  that 
are  molded,  and  those  that  are  made  in  such  a  way  that  they  can 
be  wrapped  for  the  process  of  vulcanization.  Wrapped  goods, 
of  course,  are  cured  preferably  in  an  open  heat.  In  the  one  case 
the  tires  are  cured  in  presses,  sometimes  in  nests  of  molds,  and 
sometimes  in  vulcanizers.  Molded  tires  are  cured  under  pressure, 
exactly  as  the  atomizer  bulb  is  in  the  druggists'  sundries  line. 
Various  ingenious  and  valuable  processes  in  special  machines  have 
been  invented,  and  are  now  in  use  in  this  industry.  A  minor  in- 
dustry that  has  grown  up  in  connection  with  the  tire  business, 
and  that  has  increased  the  practical  knowledge  of  the  uses  of  rub- 
ber wonderfully,  is  that  of  tire  repairing. 

A  part  of  the  tire  business  that  is  of  great  interest  is  the  mak- 
ing of  the  solid  or  cushion  molded  tire  used  on  vehicles.  A  very 
large  business  is  done  in  this,  the  work  being  a  simple  process  of 
mixing  the  prepared  compound,  forcing  it  into  shape  through  a 
tubing  machine,  and  molding  in  an  open  steam  heat.  A  tire  now 
coming  into  use  that  is  going  to  develop  a  very  large  business  is 
the  big  pneumatic  tire  used  on  various  types  of  automobiles.  The 
knowledge  gained  through  the  manufacture  of  pneumatic  bicycle 
tires,  which,  by  the  way,  was  one  of  the  hardest  problems  that  the 
rubber  trade  ever  solved,  has  proved  wonderfully  effective  in  de- 
veloping the  skill  necessary  to  make  this  heavier  and  more  impor- 


40  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE. 

tant  article.  This  tire,  like  the  bicycle  tire,  is  built  up  of  frictioned 
duck,  with  an  outer  coating  of  high-grade  rubber  carefully  vul- 
canized. While  a  variety  of  compounds  undoubtedly  will  be  used 
in  its  manufacture,  it  is  hardly  possible  that  any  manufacturer  will 
be  able  to  sell  a  very  low  grade  of  goods.  In  other  words,  the  life 
of  the  tire  is  so  important,  and  the  purchaser  so  anxious  for  a  good 
article,  that  adulteration  or  cheapening  to  any  great  extent  is  not 
a  present  danger. 

INSULATED  WIRE. — The  manufacture  of  insulated  wire,  either 
with  India-rubber  or  Gutta-percha  insulation,  is  a  line  that  is 
more  distinctly  apart  from  other  portions  of  the  rubber  business 
than  almost  any  other.  For  Gutta-percha,  the  general  machinery 
used  is  described  in  the  chapter  on  that  gum.  Where  India-rub- 
ber is  used,  the  crude  gum  is  treated  in  the  same  way  as  in  me- 
chanical goods.  It  may  be  forced  over  the  wires  by  tubing 
machines,  or  welded  together  in  strips  that  are  run  between 
grooved  rolls. 

Braiding  machines  are  also  a  part  of  the  outfit  for  weaving 
the  protective  covering,  and  the  wire  is  usually  wound  on  huge 
drums  and  vulcanized  in  open  steam  heat.  Polishing  machines, 
testing  machines,  and  various  mechanical  contrivances  are,  also, 
a  part  of  this  equipment.  The  line  of  compounds  used  is  one 
adapted  almost  wholly  to  this  industry,  and  embraces  a  great  va- 
riety of  ingredients  and  gums  that  are  treated  specifically  under 
their  special  heads,  elsewhere  in  this  book. 

MOLD  WORK. — A  part  of  the  rubber  business  that  belongs 
either  to  the  mechanical  or  the  druggists'  sundries  line  has,  during 
the  past  few  years,  detached  itself  from  the  rest,  so  that  to-day 
many  large  factories  are  run  simply  in  producing  small  mold  work. 
They  have  the  usual  equipment  of  rubber  machinery,  special  appli- 
ances for  filling  and  emptying  molds,  and  the  usual  aggregation 
of  hard  and  soft  metal  molds  that  run  into  thousands  of  dollars 
in  a  short  time.  The  extent  to  which  this  business  is  carried  may 
be  imagined  when  it  is  known  that  one  company  runs  80  presses 
on  this  work,  and  many  have  from  20  to  50  in  constant  service. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  very  rarely  are  two  compounds 
exactly  alike,  it  will  be  seen  that,  in  this  line  also,  the  expert  com- 
pounder  has  a  wide  field  for  thought  and  experiment. 


HARD  RUBBER  AND  CEMENTS.  41 

HARD  RUBBER. — In  spite  of  the  hundreds  of  substitutes  for 
vulcanite,  or  hard  rubber,  that  have  been  produced,  the  demand 
has  in  no  way  fallen  off,  and  these  mills  are  running  full  to-day 
on  the  production  of  this  semi-metal.  The  old  fashioned  com- 
pound, consisting  of  2  pounds  of  India-rubber  to  I  pound  of  sul- 
phur, is  still  in  use  in  certain  goods.  Modern  progress  and  chem- 
ical knowledge  have,  however,  added  a  great  many  compounds 
for  specific  uses,  so  that  almost  any  degree  of  quality  or  hardness 
or  price  is  now  furnished  on  call. 

The  business,  primarily,  is  a  simple  one,  the  hard  rubber 
machinery  being  like  that  used  in  other  lines.  In  the  manipula- 
tion of  the  gum  for  vulcanization,  and  in  its  finish,  however, 
special  machines  are  necessary.  The  finishing  machines  are  lathes, 
saws,  buffers,  etc.,  somewhat  similar  to  what  might  be  used  for 
turning  hard  wood.  The  mechanical  factories  often  do  a  little 
in  hard  rubber  in  the  line  of  valves,  and  the  druggists'  sundries 
mills  often  make  their  own  syringe  fittings,  but  the  bulk  of  the 
business  in  America  is  done  by  mills  that  make  only  vulcanite 
the  year  around. 

CEMENTS. — Many  rubber  factories  are  run  wholly  on  this 
line  of  work,  the  gums  being  mixed  as  in  a  general  rubber  busi- 
ness, put  into  solution  in  churns,  and  sold  by  the  barrel  for  an 
infinite  variety  of  purposes.  Hundreds  of  different  formulas  are 
in  use  for  cements  sold  for  general  and  specific  purposes.  The 
leather  shoe  business,  for  instance,  calls  for  a  dozen  or  more  special 
cements.  The  bicycle  business  has  need  for  a  great  many  grades 
of  what  are  known  as  tire  cements  and  what  are  known  as  punc- 
ture fluids.  The  latter,  however,  do  not  really  belong  to  the 
cement  business.  Stickiness,  waterproof  qualities,  durability,  and 
cheapness  in  their  goods  are  sought  by  all  cement  manufacturers, 
and,  in  order  to  secure  these  qualities,  skill  is  demanded  in  com- 
pounding in  no  way  inferior  to  that  shown  in  other  lines  of  rub- 
ber work. 

DENTAL  AND  STAMP  RUBBER. — The  manufacture  of  unvul- 
canized  gums  for  the  use  of  dentists  and  rubber  stamp  manufac- 
turers is  an  industry  apart  from  other  lines,  and  one  that  has 
assumed  quite  large  proportions.  The  rubber  is  compounded  and 
sold  by  the  manufacturer,  and  cured  and  finished  by  the  dentist 


42  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE. 

or  rubber  stamp  manufacturer.  In  stamp  work  the  rubber  is  com- 
pounded for  soft  rubber  and  many  hundreds  of  tons  are  sold  dur- 
ing the  year,  while  of  course  the  dental  rubber  is  so  mixed  that 
under  the  cure  it  becomes  vulcanite  of  the  color  desired.  The 
machinery  for  this  work  consists  chiefly  of  washers,  mixers,  and 
calenders. 

NOTIONS. — A  department  of  the  rubber  business  little  known 
is  that  which  takes  in  such  work  as  waterproof  dress  bindings, 
dress  shields,  childrens'  aprons,  diapers,  etc.  Several  large  facto- 
ries manufacture  these  goods,  mixing  their  rubber  by  the  usual 
dry  process,  coating  it  on  calenders,  and  having  special  machines 
for  forming  and  curing  the  goods  in  their  special  shapes.  In  the 
manufacture  of  dress  shields,  the  vapor  cure  is  often  practiced 
very  successfully.  The  rubber  manufacturers  of  this  class  are  not 
by  any  means  inexpert  compounders.  They  have  also,  perhaps, 
gone  as  far  as  any  in  deodorizing  rubber  goods,  so  that  the  smell 
of  the  gum  or  any  compounding  ingredients  is  wholly  done  away 
with. 

PLASTERS. — There  are  few  factories  that  keep  wholly  to  this 
line  of  work.  It  is  perhaps  as  simple  as  any  part  of  the  rubber 
business,  a  fair  grade  of  rubber  being  washed,  dried,  and  mixed 
by  the  usual  methods,  and  calendered  upon  the  fabric  that  forms 
the  base  of  the  plaster.  These  goods  are  not  vulcanized,  of  course. 
Though  a  variety  of  gums  and  medicaments  is  used  in  this  com- 
pounding, the  range  is  probably  smaller  than  any  other  line  of 
rubber  manufacture. 

RECLAIMED  RUBBER. — In  the  United  States  nearly  a  dozen 
mills  are  employed  in  the  reclaiming  of  waste  rubber,  such  as  old 
boots  and  shoes,  hose,  tires,  etc.  In  this  business  are  used  crackers, 
sheeting  mills  like  ordinary  grinders,  and,  indeed,  general  ma- 
chinery not  dissimilar  to  that  used  in  a  mill  where  crude  rubber 
is  compounded.  They  have  in  addition,  however,  lead  lined  tanks 
for  acid  treatment,  vulcanizers  or,  better,  devulcanizers,  huge  vats 
for  washing,  magnets  for  removing  metal,  sieves,  and  the  like. 
This  branch  of  the  rubber  business  is  not  supposed  to  be  deeply 
interested  in  compounding,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it  is  sometimes 
suggested  that  earthy  matters  and  heavy  adulterants  do  find  a  use 
in  reclaiming  mills. 


WASHING  AND  MIXING.  43 

II.— THE  WASHING,  MIXING,  AND  CALENDERING  OF  RUBBER. 

THE  primary  process  that  rubber  undergoes  when  it  enters 
a  rubber  mill  after  weighing,  is  washing.  As  a  rule  this  is  done 
with  clear  water.  At  the  same  time,  certain  acids,  alkalies,  and 
foreign  substances  that  are  contained  in  the  rubber  are  not  easily 
soluble  in  water,  and  yet  may  be  easily  removed.  The  first  thing 
to  do,  therefore,  is  to  know  what  is  to  be  expected  in  various 
grades  of  rubber.  Perhaps  there  is  no  better  way  to  get  a  bird's 
eye  view  of  what  the  washer  might  wish  to  remove  from  the  gum 
than  by  briefly  cataloguing  the  different  substances  used  by  the 
natives  in  coagulating  the  juice. 

There  is  no  question  but  that  the  differences  between  varying 
grades  of  rubber,  besides  being  due  to  a  somewhat  different  chem- 
ical composition,  are  also  due  in  a  measure  to  varying  methods 
of  collection  and  coagulation  of  the  sap.  It  is  undoubtedly  true 
that  no  one  method  of  collection  would  be  best  for  all  kinds  of 
rubber  gathered,  even  if  it  were  possible.  At  the  same  time,  it 
is  of  interest  to  the  practical  rubber  manufacturer  to  know  pretty 
nearly  what  systems  are  pursued,  and  particularly  what  ingre- 
dients are  added  to  the  sap,  to  produce  coagulation,  as  the  presence 
of  certain  residues  may  affect  his  compounds. 

SMOKING  rubber  is  the  system  with  which  the  world  at  large 
is  most  familar,  and  is  practised  in  the  Amazonian  forests  in  the 
collection  of  Para  gum.  Several  kinds  of  palm  nuts  are  used  to 
produce  a  thick  smudge,  but  those  ordinarily  used  are  from  the 
Urucuri  palm  (Attalea  excelsa.)  This  smoke  has  been  found  by 
analysis  to  consist  mainly  of  acetic  acid  and  creosote,  the  latter 
being  a  well  known  preservative  of  rubber.  Fine  Para  rubber  is 
nearly  always  smoked  in  this  way.  Coarse  Para  is  air  dried. 
Ceara  rubber  is  also,  to  a  certain  extent,  smoked  in  the  gathering, 
the  palm  nut  used  being  that  of  the  Eucturbe  edulus.  There  is 
also  a  kind  of  gum  tree  found  in  the  forests  of  the  Isthmus,  and 
where  it  is  impossible  to  get  palm  nuts,  its  wood  is  used  for,  the 
coagulating  smoke. 

ACHETE  JUICE. — A  native  process  for  coagulating  the  sap  of 
the  rubber  tree,  which  prevails  throughout  Central  America,  in- 
volves the  use  of  an  alkaline  decoction  made  from  the  juice  of  a 


44  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE. 

plant  called  "achete"  or  "coasso"^  Ipomoea  bona-nox,  Linn.,  and 
also  Calonyction  speciosum).  This  is  combined  with  rubber  milk 
in  the  proportion  of  I  pint  to  ij  gallons  of  the  latter.  During 
coagulation  the  vessels  are  often  heated  from  165°  to  175°  F. 
After  coagulation,  the  rubber  is  dried  for  twelve  or  fourteen  days. 
The  kinds  of  rubber  coagulated  in  this  fashion  are  Mexican,  Nic- 
araguan,  and  in  fact  almost  all  of  the  rubbers  that  come  under  the 
head  of  Centrals  and  are  obtained  from  the  Castillo  a  elastic  a. 

SULPHUR  FUMES. — According  to  James  Collins,  rubber  of 
the  Para  varieties  is  sometimes  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  fumes 
of  melted  sulphur,  which  affects  coagulation.  This  process,  how- 
ever, is  very  rarely  followed. 

COYUNTLA  JUICE. — This  is  an  astringent  juice  made  from 
the  Mexican  weed  of  that  name.  When  the  rubber  milk  is 
gathered,  it  is  placed  in  earthenware  vessels  and  whipped  with 
the  weed,  which  causes  coagulation.  The  Mexican  rubber  known 
as  Tuxpam  is  treated  in  this  way. 

MACHACON  JUICE. — Cartagena  rubber,  which  is  gathered 
carelessly,  is  coagulated  in  a  hole  in  the  ground  by  the  addition  of 
the  juice  of  the  root  of  the  "machacon" — a  strongly  alkaline 
solution. 

NIPA  SALT. — A  salt  obtained  by  the  burning  of  the  plant 
known  as  the  Nip  a  fructicans.  Is  used  in  the  coagulation  of 
Borneo  rubber. 

LIME  JUICE. — Lagos  rubber  and  some  other  African  sorts 
are  coagulated  by  the  addition  of  a  little  lime  juice,  which  is  added 
as  the  sap  flows  from  the  vine. 

ALUM. — This  is  used  all  through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  in 
coagulating  Accra  rubbers,  and  other  African  sorts.  Pernam- 
buco  rubber  is  also  treated  with  a  water  solution  of  alum,  as  is 
the  Nicaraguan  at  times. 

SALT. — Many  kinds  of  low-grade  rubber  are  coagulated  by 
the  addition  of  salt  or  brine.  Borneo,  for  instance,  is  coagulated 
in  that  way.  Madagascar  rubber  receives  a  treatment  of  salt- 
water. Mangabeira  rubber  is  treated  with  a  mixture  consisting 
of  i  part  of  salt  to  2  parts  of  alum.  Nicaragua  rubber  is  also 
often  coagulated  with  salt. 

LIME. — A  final  process  in  the  coagulation  of  rubber  in  India 


COAGULATION  OF  RUBBER.  45 

is  the  washing  over  with  lime.  Collins  also  mentions  the  use  of 
lime  in  connection  with  the  coagulation  of  Para  ruber. 

SOAP  AND  WOOD  ASHES. — The  medium  grade  rubbers  all 
through  Central  America  are  often  coagulated  by  the  use  of  soap, 
and  where  that  is  not  plenty,  of  a  strong  lye  from  wood-ashes. 

SPIRITS  OF  WINE. — This  is  used  sometimes  in  the  coagula- 
tion of  Balata. 

TORRES  SYSTEM. — In  addition  to  the  natural  methods  de- 
scribed above,  there  are  several  that  give  some  evidence  of  an 
intelligent  study  of  the  sap  and  the  substances  best  adapted  for 
this  work.  Under  the  Torres  system  a  liquid  is  made  by  a  secret 
formula,  from  the  roots  and  fruits  of  certain  South  American 
palms,  which,  when  added  to  the  sap,  preserves  it  from  curdling, 
so  that  it  will  keep  for  weeks.  It  can  thus  be  transported  to  a  con- 
venient place  for  smoking. 

HELFER  PROCESS. — This  consists  of  the  addition  of  a  solution 
of  acetic  acid,  and  is  based  on  the  knowledge  derived  from  the 
analysis  of  the  smoke  of  the  Urucuri  nuts. 

CENTRIFUGAL  SYSTEM. — Another  form  of  coagulation,  that 
has  recently  been  tried  with  considerable  success,  is  the  using  of  a 
centrifugal  machine  which  removes  the  watery  contents  from  the 
gum,  and  produces  a  marvelously  clear  elastic  rubber. 

HEAT,  AIR,  SUNLIGHT. — Various  rubbers  are  coagulated  sim- 
ply by  the  exposure  to  slight  artificial  heat,  to  the  sunlight,  or 
merely  to  the  air.  Such  are  the  coarse  Para  rubbers,  certain  of 
the  Centrals,  African,  and  East  Indian  rubbers.  Fiji  rubber  is 
coagulated  in  the  mouths  of  the  natives,  and  Angola  rubber  on  the 
arms  and  breasts  of  the  natives. 

The  very  first  manufacturing  process  in  the  manipulation  of 
rubber  of  any  kind,  and  for  any  use,  is  that  of  the  cleansing.  This 
is  usually  done  by  passing  the  gum  again  and  again  between  cor- 
rugated rolls,  while  fine  streams  of  water  remove  the  various  impu- 
rities that  are  exposed  by  the  tearing  action  of  the  rolls.  These 
impurities  are  bits  of  vegetable  substances,  earth,  sand,  acids,  and 
alkalies.  The  old  type  of  washer  for  removing  these  was  a  couple 
of  corrugated  rolls  6  or  8  inches  in  diameter,  and  12  or  14  inches 
in  length.  Modern  methods,  however,  have  introduced  larger 
rolls,  until  to-day  one  machine,  when  it  is  the  highest  type  of  three- 


46  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE. 

roll  washer,  will  cleanse  enough  gum  to  keep  a  huge  factory  busy. 
Some  rubbers  are  so  full  of  sand  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  remove  it  wholly.  For  this  purpose  is  used  a  tub  with  a  false 
bottom  made  of  fine  wire,  and  also  with  a  stirrer.  The  thimbles, 
for  instance,  after  being  run  through  the  washer,  are  put  in  the 
tub  without  any  attempt  at  sheeting,  and  stirred  until  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  sand  is  removed. 

Another  type  of  washer  is  one  that  is  quite  similar  to  a  paper 
engine;  in  fact,  paper  engines  are  often  used  in  rubber  washing. 
The  special  value  of  this  type  is  that  the  rubber  in  its  movement 
about  the  tub  is  floated  more  or  less,  and  the  sand  and  earthy 
matters  sink  to  the  bottom,  while  the  bark  and  vegetable  matters 
can  be  seen  and  easily  removed. 

Certain  manufacturers,  following  Austin  G.  Day's  ideas,  have 
used  alkaline  solutions  in  washing  certain  gums,  to  neutralize  the 
vegetable  acids,  and  it  is  a  question  if  it  might  not  be  as  well  to  use 
dilute  acids  to  neutralize  the  strongly  alkaline  qualities  of  gums 
that  go  through  certain  kinds  of  coagulation.  Some  factories  also 
examine  the  coarser  grades  of  gums  chemically,  and  give  them  a 
treatment  to  remove  odor.  As  a  rule,  however,  manufacturers 
rush  them  through  the  washing  machines,  sheet  and  dry  them,  and 
get  them  into  the  mixing  mills  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  drying  of  rubber,  according  to  earlier  practice,  required 
a  great  deal  of  time.  It  was  the  boast  of  more  than  one  rubber 
mill  that  no  Para  rubber  was  used  by  them  until  it  had  been  dried 
for  a  year.  The  manufacturers  of  mechanical  rubber  goods  were 
the  first  to  break  away  from  this  tradition.  In  many  cases  they 
found,  when  there  were  rush  orders  on  hand,  that  they  must  put 
on  their  mills  gum  that  was  practically  just  off  the  washer, 
and  mix  it,  or  else  lose  orders.  Of  course,  they  were  forced  to 
get  most  of  the  moisture  out,  or  neutralize  what  was  left,  and  they 
learned  incidentally  that  they  got  a  stronger  compound  with  the 
green  gum  than  with  the  "seasoned,"  whence  the  belief  grew  up 
that  the  months  and  years  of  drying  was  not  necessary,  as  had 
before  been  supposed.  In  addition  to  this,  some  of  them  learned 
that  long  drying  meant  oxidation  on  the  outside,  or  the  turning 
of  rubber  into  resin,  which  further  increased  their  doubt  of  the 
wisdom  of  the  slow  drying  process. 


DRYING  AND  MIXING.  47 

These  thoughts  once  entertained,  it  was  not  long  before  vari- 
ous plans  were  introduced  into  the  drying,  for  hastening-the  re- 
moval of  the  moisture.  The  simplest  of  these,  of  course,  was 
artificial  heat,  and  the  presence  of  a  fan  for  removing  the  moisture 
laden  atmosphere.  Later  developments  have  brought  about  a  pro- 
cess for  drying  rubber  very  cheaply  at  quite  a  high  heat,  lasting 
only  a  few  hours,  that  gives  it  to  the  man  who  runs  the  mixer, 
hot  from  the  dryer,  and  that  wholly  does  away  with  the  expensive 
process  of  breaking  down.  This  latter  idea,  is  to  some,  of  course, 
as  revolutionary  as  was  the  first  thought  of  quick  drying,  but  that 
it  is  wholly  in  the  line  of  progress,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  it 
has  been  used  for  a  number  of  years  in  one  large  factory  whose 
goods  stand  very  high. 

The  milling  of  crude  rubber  is  simply  putting  the  dry  rubber 
which  is  found  in  a  tough,  intractable  sheet,  on  hot  rolls,  and  run- 
ning it  until  it  gets  to  be  a  softened  homogeneous  mass.  The 
gum,  when  this  is  accomplished,  is  ready  for  mixing.  These  mix- 
ing rolls  are  run  at  different  speeds  and  are  called  friction  rolls, 
and  the  various  adulterants  and  ingredients  that  are  to  be  incor- 
porated with  the  rubber  are  pressed  into  a  softened  gum  by  their 
revolution. 

No  general  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  mixing  in  all  lines.  An 
expert  compounder  knows  that  certain  gums  should  be  mixed  on 
cool  rolls,  and  others  under  considerable  heat.  His  knowledge 
of  specific  compounds  teaches  him  to  hasten  mixing  in  many  cases 
where  another,  without  skill,  would  require  very  much  more  time 
to  get  the  same  result.  In  some  cases  one  ingredient  is  put  in  with 
the  others,  in  some,  it  is  necessary  to  put  it  in  last.  Some  have 
dissolved  substances  that  would  make  the  rubber  stick  to  the  rolls 
like  glue  unless  they  are  put  in  at  just  the  right  time ;  others  have 
so  large  a  proportion  of  earthy  matters  that,  unless  the  gum  is 
humored,  it  apparently  will  not  take  them  in,  and  so  on.  Each 
line  of  work  and,  in  fact,  each  factory  has  its  own  special  methods, 
and  often  one  or  more  skilled  mixers  who  can  handle  compounds 
that  none  of  the  others  seem  to  be  able  to  do  anything  with. 

The  use  of  the  calender  is  simply  to  sheet  the  goods  so  that 
they  may  be  easily  made  into  the  desired  forms.  The  simplest 
form  of  calender  is  a  mixing  mill  with  the  key  that  normally  holds 


48  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  MANUFACTURE. 

one  roll  in  place  withdrawn,  so  that  both  run  by  even  motion, 
which  is  used  in  many  small  factories  where  nothing  but  molded 
work  is  made. 

The  modern  sheeting  calender  is  ordinarily  a  three-roll  ma- 
chine. It  is  sometimes  made  with  four  rolls,  however,  and  these 
rolls  may  be  almost  any  size,  the  widest  for  rubber  work  being 
little  less  than  80  inches.  No  little  skill  is  required  for  running 
the  calender  on  a  variety  of  stocks,  nor  can  any  general  rules  be 
laid  down  for  calender  work.  This  is  proved  by  the  value  that  is 
set  upon  good  calender  men,  and  by  the  difference  that  there  is 
between  the  work  of  a  good  one  and  a  poor  one.  There  are  as 
many  different  kinds  of  calenders  as  there  are  patterns  of  mixing 
mills.  A  sheet  calender  has  smooth  rolls,  and  is  for  running 
absolutely  smooth  goods.  In  shoe  work  there  are  engraved  rolls, 
pebbled  rolls,  and  soleing  calenders  engraved  in  the  likeness  of  the 
shoe  sole.  The  carriage  drill  business  has  embossing  calenders, 
and  so  on.  A  type  of  calender  that  is  useful  in  most  lines  of  work 
is  known  as  the  friction  calender,  the  rolls  in  which,  run  at  uneven 
speeds,  drive  the  gum  deply  into  the  fabric. 

Where  India-rubber  is  handled  in  solution  there  is  used  in 
place  of  the  calender  a  spreading  machine,  known  under  various 
names  of  "Yankee  flyer,"  "English  spreader/'  "Doughing  ma- 
chine," etc.  In  this  a  sheet  of  rubber  is  spread  on  the  cloth  by 
being  placed  on  an  endless  apron  of  the  fabric,  the  apron  running 
over  the  roll  against  which  hangs  a  heavy  knife.  A  very  thin 
coating  of  the  rubber  solution  is  constantly  scraped  off  this  sur- 
face, which  then  passes  over  hot  drums  or  steam  chests,  evaporat- 
ing the  solvent. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

VULCANIZING  INGREDIENTS  AND  PROCESSES. 

WHILE  Charles  Goodyear's  patents  for  the  vulcanization  of 
India-rubber  by  the  use  of  sulphur  and  heat  were  in  force,  a  mar- 
velous amount  of  ingenuity  was  shown  in  the  attempts  to  accom- 
plish the  same  results  by  the  substitution  of  other  ingredients  for 
sulphur,  either  with  or  without  the  use  of  heat.  These  experi- 
ments and  inventions  embrace  vulcanization,  by  means  of  chlo- 
rides, nitrates,  nitrites,  fluorides,  bromides,  iodides,  and  phospho- 
rets  of  about  all  of  the  common  earths  and  metals,  and  also  many 
gases  such  as  sulphurous  acid  gas.  The  majority  of  these  experi- 
ments have  been  lost  sight  of,  partly  because  the  Goodyear  pro- 
cess is  now  open  to  the  world,  and  partly  because,  for  the  majority 
of  goods,  the  sulphur  and  heat  cure  is  not  only  the  cheapest,  but 
the  easiest  to  accomplish.  It  may  be  well,  however,  to  review  and 
record  the  experiments  in  this  line,  as  there  is  no  doubt  that  for 
special  lines  in  rubber  manufacture  many  of  them  have  a  great 
suggestive  value  to-day. 

One  of  the  very  first  ingredients  to  which  inventors  and  ex- 
perimenters turned  their  attention  was  zinc.  The  veteran  rubber 
manufacturer,  the  late  Jonathan  Trotter,  described  a  process  for 
preparing  a  vulcanizing  material  which  he  called  hyposulphite  of 
zinc.  It  was  made  from  a  solution  of  caustic  potash  saturated 
with  flowers  of  sulphur  and  then  treated  with  sulphurous  acid  gas. 
This  solution  he  mixed  with  a  saturated  solution  of  nitrate  of  zinc, 
forming  the  precipitate  that  he  desired.  He  used  3  pounds  of 
hyposulphite,  to  10  pounds  of  rubber,  curing  from  3  to  5  hours, 
at  260°  to  280°  F. 

Another  American,  E.  E.  Marcy,  some  years  later  patented  a 
compound  of  hyposulphite  of  zinc  and  rubber  which  is  apparently 
almost  identical  with  Trotter's  discovery,  although  he  disclaimed 
similarity,  and  also  made  public  the  process  in  which  he  used  a 
combination  of  hyposulphite  of  zinc  and  sulphide  of  zinc,  the  com- 
pound being  2  pounds  of  rubber,  i  pound  sulphide  of  zinc,  I  pound 
hyposulphite  of  zinc,  and  other  ingredients  as  deemed  necessary. 
These  goods  were  of  a  beautiful  white  color,  were  said  not  to 

49 


50  VULCANIZING    INGREDIENTS. 

bloom,  and  did  not  need  the  sunning  process  then  in  use.  At  the 
same  time  they  depended  upon  sulphur  and  heat  for  whatever 
vulcanizing  was  accomplished. 

Another  attempt  to  get  a  good  substitute  for  sulphur  was  in 
the  production  of  what  is  known  as  sulphite  or  hyposulphite  of 
lead.  James  Thomas  describes  at  length  a  compound  in  which  he 
mixes  hyposulphite  of  lead  and  artificial  sulphide  of  lead  in  equal 
proportions,  his  compound  being  for  vulcanization,  2  parts  by 
weight  of  India-rubber  and  I  part  of  the  vulcanizing  material. 

Following  this  thought,  came  E.  E.  Marcy  again,  who  mixed 
sulphide  of  lead  and  carbonate  of  lead  in  the  proportions  of  2 
parts  of  sulphide  of  lead,  i  part  carbonate  of  lead,  and  2  parts 
protoxide  of  lead  in  place  of  the  carbonate. 

Then  Oscar  Falke  and  Albert  C.  Richards  brought  out  a 
compound  consisting  of  6  parts  India-rubber,  2  parts  sulphide  of 
antimony,  and  £  part  sulphite  of  soda,  curing  at  270°  to  280°  F. 

A.  K.  Eaton,  in  no  uncertain  terms,  disclaimed  vulcanization 
by  the  use  of  free  sulphur,  but  claimed  to  be  the  first  to  use  sul- 
phide of  manganese.  He  also  gave  a  formula  for  making  it,  which 
was  by  mixing  intimately  44  parts  of  peroxide  of  manganese  with 
32  parts  of  sulphur,  and  exposing  the  mixture  to  heat  in  a  covered 
crucible.  He  vulcanized  several  hours,  from  250°  to  310°  F. 

George  Dieffenbach  claimed  sulphite  of  alumina  as  an  ingre- 
dient which,  in  connection  with  heat,  would  bring  about  vulcani- 
zation. He  used  this  in  a  compound  for  a  dental  rubber,  which 
had  for  its  basis  India-rubber,  amber,  linseed  oil,  sulphide  of  cad- 
mium, oxide  of  tin,  vermilion,  and  pulverized  feldspar. 

Charles  T.  Harris  cured  India-rubber  by  combining  it  with 
an  artificial  sulphide  of  bismuth,  which  he  explained  as  being  the 
artificial  tersulphide,  or  poly  sulphide  of  bismuth.  He  describes 
this  as  being  a  heavy  black  powder,  and  the  compound  which  he 
advised  for  soft  rubber  was  100  parts  India-rubber,  75  parts  car- 
bonate of  lead,  and  12 £  parts  polysulphide  of  bismuth,  cured  in 
a  dry  heat  at  245°  F.  for  i£  hours. 

The  veteran  Henry  W.  Joselyn  discovered  that  shale — an 
earth  that  is  very  plentiful  in  New  Jersey — combined  by  heat 
with  sulphur,  formed  a  sulphide  which  could  be  used  in  curing 
rubber,  and  hastened  to  patent  it. 


EARLY  INVENTORS.  51 

Andreas  Willman,  with  more  originality,  brought  out  a  pro- 
cess for  combining  India-rubber  with  "anhydrous  chlorides,  sul- 
phates of  alkalies"  and  powdered  coke  or  coal,  and  claimed  that 
his  best  result  came  from  chloride  of  ammonium  and  coke.  His 
compound  was  made  up  of  litharge,  lampblack,  and  powdered 
coke,  in  connection  with  from  2  to  10  per  cent,  of  his  vulcanizing 
mixture. 

Edwin  L.  Simpson  formed  a  vulcanizing  compound  by  mix- 
ing benzoin  gum  with  pulverized  sulphur,  and  boiling  it  in  linseed 
oil.  It  was  used  in  a  dry  heat,  the  compound  being  I  pound  of 
India-rubber,  2  ounces  vulcanizing  compound,  8  ounces  litharge, 
and  8  ounces  whiting. 

J.  A.  Newbrough  manufactured  a  vulcanizing  material  which 
he  called  acid  resin,  made  of  turpentine  and  sulphuric  acid.  This 
he  incorporated  in  India-rubber  in  the  proportion  of  6  ounces  of 
acid  resin,  to  i  pound  of  India-rubber,  and  cured  at  300°  to  320°  F. 

The  use  of  selenium  as  a  curing  agent  was  discovered  by  E. 
E.  Marcy,  while  connected  with  Horace  H.  Day,  then  prominent 
as  a  rubber  manufacturer.  He  advised  the  use  of  equal  parts  of 
India-rubber  and  powdered  selenium,  and,  to  produce  a  glossy 
finish,  he  added  selenium  carbonate  and  whiting. 

At  the  same  time  there  were  many  other  inventors  who  were 
experimenting  with  processes  that  were  somewhat  in  the  line  of 
the  well-known  Parkes  cold-curing  process.  For  example,  it  is 
a  matter  of  history  that  the  late  Joseph  Banigan,  early  in  his  career 
as  a  rubber  manufacturer,  cured  wringer  rolls  by  an  acid  process. 

Dubois  C.  Parmelee  invented  a  process  which  he  called  "her- 
mizing,"  to  distinguish  it  from  curing  or  vulcanizing,  instead  of 
the  Parkes  process,  in  which  the  solution  of  chloride  of  sulphur 
and  bisulphide  of  carbon  were  used.  He  recommended  briefly  a 
solution  made  as  follows :  10  pounds  of  coal-tar  naphtha,  in  which 
was  dissolved  I  pound  of  sulphur.  Into  this  solution  he  passed 
dry  chlorine  gas  until  it  assumed  a  fine  yellowish-green  color. 
This  solution  he  used  as  a  dip  for  such  goods  as  would  be  cured  by 
the  acid  treatment.  Parmelee  also  claimed  the  discovery  of  a 
solution  made  of  coal-tar  naphtha,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  a 
solution  of  sulphur  in  bromine,  mixed  with  this. 

H.  A.  Ayling  patented  a  cold  curing  process  in  which  carbon 


52  VULCANIZING  INGREDIENTS. 

spirits,  one  of  the  petroleum  series,  was  mixed  with  chloride  of 
sulphur,  instead  of  the  usual  bisulphide  of  carbon. 

Referring  again  to  the  suggestions  of  chlorine  in  the  work- 
ing of  rubber,  R.  F.  H.  Havermann  reduced  India-rubber  to  a 
solution  and  subjected  it  to  the  action  of  chlorine.  He  also,  in  a 
later  patent,  described  the  washing  of  the  chlorine  out  of  the  rub- 
ber with  alcohol,  and  the  addition  of  ammonia  and  lime,  the  result 
being,  according  to  his  specifications,  a  white  hard  rubber. 

Working  in  the  same  line,  John  Helm,  Jr.,  dissolved  India- 
rubber  in  benzine  and  mixed  it  with  liquid  chlorine  in  the  propor- 
tion of  12  ounces  of  chlorine  to  i  pound  of  gum.  His  claim  was 
that  he  could  get  rubber  of  any  color  and  of  any  degree  of  hard- 
ness by  this  process. 

In  the  line  of  hard  rubber  manipulation  and  vulcanization, 
Mr.  Meyer  (connected  with  the  India-Rubber  Comb  Co.)  patented 
a  process  for  curing  vulcanite  in  a  vessel  wholly  or  partly  filled 
with  water,  the  water  in  which  the  rubber  was  contained  being  in 
a  tight  receptacle,  and  the  heat  being  raised  above  300°  F.,  the 
pressure  of  the  surrounding  steam  keeping  it  from  vulcanizing. 
This  obviated  the  danger  of  burning,  and  was  of  great  value  in 
the  production  of  certain  goods. 

While  these  and  other  inventors  were  trying  to  cure  rubber 
without  sulphur,  and  without  interference  with  the  Goodyear 
patents,  certain  others  were  at  work  on  other  gums.  For  example, 
John  Rider,  who  was  at  the  head  of  a  Gutta-percha  company,  pro- 
duced what  he  called  mettallothyanized  Gutta-percha.  In  this,  he 
first  heated  the  Gutta-percha,  then  mixed  3  pounds  of  hyposul- 
phite of  lead  and  zinc  with  8  pounds  of  gum,  and  sometimes  added 
also  a  little  Paris  white,  or  magnesia.  He  then  put  the  compound 
from  2  to  10  hours  in  a  dry  heat  and  cured  it  at  280°  to  320°  F. 

John  Murphy  changed  this  compound  somewhat,  by  advising 
the  incorporation  of  sulphur  in  the  proportion  of  2  to  6  ounces  of 
sulphur,  to  10  pounds  of  Gutta-percha.  This  sulphur,  by  the  way, 
obviated  the  preliminary  heating  of  the  Gutta-percha,  which  was 
supposed  to  volatilize  the  ingredients  that  had  before  rendered  it 
unvulcanizable. 

A  curious  process  for  the  manufacture  of  hard  rubber  was  also 
brought  out  by  William  Mullee.  In  this,  just  as  soon  as  the  rubber 


PARKES'S  PROCESS.  53 

was  washed,  the  sheets  were  immersed  in  the  sulphur  bath,  heated 
to  220°  F.  The  water  and  other  impurities  in  the  rubber  were  said 
to  be  extracted  by  the  action  of  the  heated  sulphur.  After  boiling 
30  minutes,  the  sheets  were  removed  with  tongs  and  washed  to 
prevent  crystalization.  They  were  then  subjected  to  the  same  pro- 
cess a  second  time.  The  rubber  was  then  compounded  in  the  old 
fashioned  way,  on  rolls,  the  proportions  being  17  to  24  ounces  of 
sulphur  to  1 6  ounces  of  rubber.  The  claim  for  this  was,  that  the 
compound  when  cured  was  tougher  than  any  others  ever  known. 

William  Elmer  prepared  what  he  called  "elastic  selenide  of 
caoutchouc."  He  first  dissolved  the  India-rubber  in  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  placed  it  under  pressure,  and  heated  gradually.  When 
brought  to  about  300°  F.,  the  liquified  selenium  was  put  into  the 
apparatus  drop  by  drop,  the  solution  in  the  meantime  being  kept  in 
constant  motion.  This  elastic  selenide  he  claimed  to  be  semi- 
fluid which,  when  evaporated,  possessed  all  the  characteristics  of 
India-rubber. 

The  Parkes  cold-curing  process  is  so  widely  known  as  to 
require  but  a  word.  It  is  based  on  the  invention  of  Alexander 
Parkes,  and  depends  upon  the  faculty  that  chloride  of  sulphur  has 
for  vulcanizing  India-rubber.  (See  Chloride  of  Sulphur.) 

A  curious  process,  similar  to  that  of  Parkes,  is  Caulbry's  pro- 
cess, by  which  it  is  claimed  rubber  can  be  vulcanized  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  by  using  an  intimate  mixture  of  chloride  of  sul- 
phur and  dry  chloride  of  lime.  During  this  mixture,  and  when 
the  smell  of  the  chloride  of  sulphur  will  be  noticed,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  mixture  will  rise,  the  mass  becoming  plastic  by  the 
softening  of  the  sulphur.  If  a  mixture  of  this  kind,  in  which  sul- 
phur is  in  great  excess,  is  added  to  the  solution  of  India-rubber  in 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  the  rubber  will  be  vulcanized  at  an  ordinary 
temperature,  or  perhaps  with  a  slight  warming.  Chloride  of  sul- 
phur used  pure  is  too  corrosive  in  its  effect  on  India-rubber ;  it  is 
therefore  reduced  in  all  cases.  Only  thin  articles  can  be  vulcan- 
ized in  this  way. 

A  recent  patent  taken  out  in  England  by  Edmond  Gamier 
relates  to  the  vulcanization  of  India-rubber  by  the  use  of  alum. 
Alum  processes  for  curing  in  the  past  have  not  been  very  success- 
ful. This  patent,  however,  has  some  novel  features.  It  calls  for 


54  VULCANIZING  INGREDIENTS. 

particularly  dry  alum  treated  with  a  solution  of  terebinth  of  ben- 
zol and  shellac,  or  some  similar  gum.  In  use  he  takes  8  ounces  of 
alum  and  a  solution  composed  of  I  part  gum  and  20  parts  benzol. 
He  mixes  together  the  ingredients  that  are  usually  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  rubber,  specifying  3  pounds  of  whiting,  i 
pound  barytes,  8  ounces  lime,  ij  pounds  oxidized  oil,  and  8  ounces 
of  India-rubber.  When  these  have  been  thoroughly  mixed  to- 
gether and  specially  treated,  alum  is  incorporated  with  them  and 
well  compounded,  being  passed  through  the  mixing  rollers  cold. 
It  is  then  calendered. 

AMORPHOUS  SULPHUR. — The  fusing  of  i  pound  of  sulphur 
with  4  ounces  of  Canada  balsam  produces  what  is  known  as  amor- 
phous sulphur,  which  is  said  to  cure  rubber  so  that  it  will  have  no 
tendency  to  bloom.  The  preparation  has  a  very  pungent  sulphur- 
ous odor.  Patented  by  Dr.  F.  Wilhoft,  of  New  York. 

ARTIFICIAL  SULPHURET  of  LEAD. — There  are  several  combi- 
nations of  lead  and  sulphur  which  may  be  produced  artificially. 
That  one  containing  the  most  sulphur  has  a  composition  of  13  per 
cent,  of  sulphur  and  86  per  cent,  of  lead.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
about  9.4.  In  color  it  is  black.  It  melts  .at  a  strong  red  heat.  The 
other  sulphur  compounds  of  lead  have  much  less  sulphur,  one  con- 
taining but  9  per  cent,  and  the  other  only  4  per  cent.  What  is 
known  as  hypo-sulphite  of  lead  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  the 
above  first  named,  with  a  suitable  percentage  of  sulphur  to  effect 
vulcanization.  It  is  also  known  in  the  rubber  trade  as  "Eureka 
compound"  and  "Burnt  hypo."  These  compounds  when  pure — 
that  is,  when  free  from  adulteration — are  of  great  value.  They 
produce  goods  that  are  jet  black  and  have  little  odor  and  are  free 
from  bloom.  They  are  reckoned  as  the  safest  vulcanizing  agents, 
as  it  is  almost  impossible  to  burn  goods  that  depend  upon  their 
presence  for  cure.  They  are  used  in  either  dry  or  wet  heats. 

BARIUM  SULPHIDE  is  prepared  from  heavy  spar  by  making  a 
dough  of  it  with  charcoal  and  oil  and  subjecting  it  to  a  white 
heat.  Sulphides  of  the  alkaline  metals,  potassium,  sodium,  cal- 
cium, and  barium,  will  vulcanize  rubber,  whence  the  term  "alka- 
lised  rubber." 

BROMINE. — A  heavy  deep  red  volatile  liquid,  possessing  a 
most  peculiar  and  unpleasant  odor,  and  giving  off  vapors  most 


CHLORIDE  OF  SULPHUR.  55 

irritating  to  the  air  passages  and  lungs.  It's  very  name  means 
stench.  It  has  a  powerful  action  upon  most  organic  bodies,  color- 
ing animal  matter  brown,  while  it  bleaches  coloring  matters,  dyes, 
etc.  Its  specific  gravity  is  3.18.  A  piece  of  sheet  rubber  dipped 
into  bromine  is  vulcanized  instantly.  It  is  somewhat  soluble  in 
alcohol,  and  very  soluble  in  ether,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  chloro- 
form, etc.  Messrs.  Newbrough  and  Fagan  filed  two  patents  in  the 
United  States  for  the  use  of  bromine  in  vulcanization,  both  with 
and  without  iodine.  By  adding  to  iodine  £  its  weight  of  bromine, 
proto-bromide  of  iodine  is  formed,  which  is  said  to  combine  with 
India-rubber  and  produce  a  hard  compound  on  being  exposed  I 
hour  to  a  temperature  of  250°  F.  To  prevent  the  forming  of  an 
explosive  the  iodine  and  bromine  were  separately  treated  with  oil 
of  turpentine  to  which  had  been  added  a  quarter  of  its  weight  of 
sulphuric  acid.  It  was  then  mixed  with  the  gum  in  the  proportion 
of  2  pounds  1 1  ounces  to  every  pound  of  gum.  Bromine  was  also 
used  alone  by  these  inventors,  the  material  after  molding  being 
plunged  into  the  liquid,  and  left  there  long  enough  to  harden.  To 
prevent  the  hardening  of  the  material,  while  in  the  bath,  chloro- 
form or  any  other  solvent  of  rubber  was  added  in  the  proportion  of 
i  part  to  9  parts  of  bromine;  in  other  words,  the  rubber  vulcan- 
ized in  the  air  after  its  withdrawal  from  the  liquid. 

CHLORIDE  OF  SULPHUR. — Sulphur  and  chlorine  form  three 
compounds,  the  monochloride,  the  dichloride,  and  a  tetrachloride 
of  sulphur.  The  substance  usually  used  in  the  arts  is  the  first 
named  or  a  mixture  of  the  first  two.  It  is  an  oily  liquid  of  the 
specific  gravity  1.7,  and  boiling  at  239°  F.  It  has  a  pungent 
smell  and  decomposes  on  contact  with  water  or  watery  vapor. 
Pure  chloride  of  sulphur  is  of  an  orange  yellow  color  of  great 
density.  It  fumes  strongly  when  exposed  to  air,  throws  off  the 
vapors  of  hydrochlorine,  and  is  quite  poisonous,  severely  attacking 
the  mucous  membranes.  It  is  widely  known  as  the  active  agent 
in  Parkes's  cold-curing  process,  where  it  is  used  in  connection  with 
bisulphide  of  carbon.  A  common  formula  for  this  is  chloride  of 
sulphur,  i  part  by  weight,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  30  to  40  parts  by 
weight ;  immerse  from  60  to  80  seconds.  In  the  manufacture  of 
balloons  and  toy  balls,  the  solution  is  a  far  weaker  one.  That  for 
the  outside  dip  is  10  parts  of  chloride  of  sulphur  to  100  parts  bi- 


56  VULCANIZING    INGREDIENTS. 

sulphide  of  carbon,  while  for  the  inside  it  is  16  parts  chloride  of 
sulphur  to  1,000  parts  bisulphide  of  carbon.  When  it  was  com- 
mon to  cure  proofed  cloth  by  the  cold  process,  it  was  done  by  wet- 
ting its  surface  with  a  mixture  of  5  to  10  parts  of  chloride  of 
sulphur,  dissolved  in  100  parts  of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  then  run- 
ning the  fabric  over  heated  drums  to  evaporate  the  mixture.  In 
the  sulphurization  of  oils  for  rubber  substitutes  chloride  of  sulphur 
plays  a  most  important  part,  nearly  all  of  the  amber  and  white 
products  being  produced  by  its  use.  It  also  has  a  curious  effect 
upon  bastard  gums,  giving  some  of  them  temporarily  the  elas- 
ticity and  appearance  of  high  grade  rubber. 

GOLD  BRIMSTONE. — See  Sulphur. 

GOLDEN  SULPHURET  OF  ANTIMONY. — This  is  prepared  from 
black  antimony  by  boiling  it  with  caustic  soda  and  sulphur  for 
some  time.  The  liquid  is  then  clarified  by  filtration  or  settling 
and  the  clear  part  treated  with  a  dilute  acid,  preferably  muriatic 
or  sulphuric.  A  golden  yellow  precipitate  is  formed  which  should 
be  well  washed  in  water,  and  dried  at  not  too  high  a  temperature 
in  a  darkish  place.  The  results  of  this  operation  well  carried  out 
are  constant  and  the  composition  should  be :  Antimony,  60.4 ;  sul- 
phur, 39.6.  Golden  sulphuret  of  antimony  heated  in  a  tube  will 
give  off  sulphur  which  will  deposit  on  the  cool  sides  of  the  tube 
away  from  the  flame  and  the  residue  will  turn  black,  being  indeed 
the  black  sulphide  of  antimony.  All  samples  of  this  compound 
should  be  tested  for  free  sulphuric  acid  by  shaking  up  a  little  of 
the  powder  in  a  test  tube  with  cold  or  hot  water,  and  testing  the 
water  afterwards  with  some  barium  chloride  and  blue  litmus 
paper.  A  white  cloud  in  the  first  place  and  the  reddening  of  the 
paper  in  the  second  place  indicate  the  presence  of  more  or  less  free 
sulphuric  acid.  Golden  sulphuret  prepared  with  muriatic  acid  will 
not  respond  to  the  first  test,  but  will  to  the  second. 

GOLDEN  SULPHURET  or  ANTIMONY  RED  (penta-sulphide)  is 
used  more  largely  than  any  other  form  of  antimony  in  rubber 
work.  It  is  frequently  adulterated,  sometimes  with  carbonate  of 
lime,  oxide  of  iron,  or  oxide  of  antimony,  all  of  which  tend  to 
harden  the  rubber.  Also  called  Orange  Sulphide  of  Antimony. 
Properly  used,  this  ingredient  produces  some  of  the  best  effects 
found  in  vulcanized  rubber,  in  color,  texture,  and  durability.  It 


IODINE.  57 

should  never  be  mixed  on  a  very  hot  mill,  should  be  sheeted  and 
placed  in  cooling  racks  if  it  is  not  to  go  right  to  the  calender,  and 
should  be  cured  in  as  low  a  heat  as  possible.  The  ideal  result  will 
be  of  a  golden  yellow  color,  with  a  very  slight  bloom,  if  any.  It 
is  used  only  in  high  cost  goods. 

HONEYCOMB  SULPHUR. — A  vulcanizing  compound  made  by 
boiling  a  pound  of  sulphur,  and  two  ounces  of  benzoin  gum  to- 
gether, i  pound  of  this  material  being  mixed  with  a  quart  of  boiled 
linseed  oil. 

HYPO-SULPHITE  OF  LEAD. — See  Artificial  Sulphuret  of  Lead. 

IODINE  is  manufactured  from  seaweed  and  is  a  black-gray 
substance  occurring  in  small  shining  scales.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
4.94  and  it  fuses  at  239°  F.,  giving  off  violet  vapors.  It  is  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol,  benzol,  chloroform,  and  sulphide  of  car- 
bon. In  addition  to  the  formula  given  under  the  head  of  bromine, 
Messrs,  Newbrough  and  Fagan  patented  the  combination  of  iodine 
and  sulphur.  In  this  the  sulphur  was  boiled  in  turpentine,  and 
the  oil  decomposed  and  deposited  with  the  sulphur  at  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel  was  used  in  the  operation,  after  being  washed  in 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  dried.  The  iodine  was  treated  in  the 
same  manner  to  prevent  explosions.  Equal  proportions  of  the  two 
were  melted  together  and  incorporated  in  the  proportions  of  2 
ounces  5  drams,  to  I  pound  of  rubber.  After  shaping,  the  articles 
were  put  in  a  vulcanizer  and  during  the  first  fifteen  minutes  ex- 
posed to  a  dry  heat,  gradually  increasing  to  320°  F.,  remaining 
there  5  minutes,  then  dropping  rapidly  to  250°  F.,  and  continu- 
ing for  an  hour. 

LIQUID  CHLORINE. — Chlorine  is  a  greenish  yellow  gas  at  all 
ordinary  temperatures.  It  has  strong  bleaching  properties  and 
also  a  very  bad  smell  and  action  upon  the  respiratory  passages. 
Under  a  pressure  of  127  pounds  to  the  square  inch  at  60°  F., 
chlorine  condenses  to  a  yellow  liquid,  having  the  specific  gravity 
of  1.33.  This  liquid,  however,  is  unknown  in  the  arts.  It  is  prob- 
able that  either  a  solution  of  the  gas  in  water  or  as  sulphuric 
chloride  in  bisulphide  of  carbon  is  meant.  It  has  been  contended 
that  chloride,  especially  in  the  last-named  solution,  is  the  really 
active  agent  in  curing  caoutchouc.  Chlorine  cannot,  as  a  rule,  de- 
stroy mineral  colors  or  blacks  produced  by  carbon.  Helm  claimed 


58  VULCANIZING     INGREDIENTS. 

that  he  was  able  to  produce  white  hard  rubber  by  incorporating 
chlorine  with  the  mass. 

LIVER  OF  SULPHUR. — This  is  really  penta-sulphide  of  potas- 
sium, and  is  obtained  by  mixing  carbonate  of  potassium  together 
with  sulphur.  It  is  called  Liver  of  Sulphur  on  account  of  its 
brown  color.  As  it  is  quite  volatile  it  should  be  kept  in  well  closed 
glass  vessels.  The  fluid  for  vulcanizing  purposes  is  a  concentrated 
solution  of  the  penta-sulphide,  about  25°  Baume  being  right  for 
use.  To  cure  with  it  the  liquid  is  brought  to  the  boiling  point  in 
a  porcelain  vessel,  the  articles  to  be  vulcanized  being  immersed 
in  it.  This  is  known  as  Gerard's  process  and  is  said  to  be  inex- 
pensive and  perfectly  safe. 

MILK  OF  SULPHUR. — Another  name  for  what  is  ordinarily 
termed  precipitated  sulphur.  It  is  fine,  light,  and  grayish  white 
in  color,  but  is  often  adulterated  with  sulphate  of  lime.  It  should 
be  kept  in  a  dry  place,  as  it  has  an  affinity  for  moisture. 

PENTA-SULPHIDE  or  ANTIMONY. — The  chemical  name  for 
Golden  Sulphuret  of  Antimony  (which  see.) 

PROTO-CHLORIDE  OF  SULPHUR. — See  Chloride  of  Sulphur. 

SULPHIDE  OF  LEAD. — Occurs  native  as  galena  and  is  one  of 
the  ores  of  lead,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  7.2  to  7.7.  Com- 
mercially it  is  found  as  a  black  powder,  of  specific  gravity  6.9. 
Its  composition  is  86.6  per  cent,  of  lead  and  36.4  per  cent,  of  sul- 
phur. Sulphide  of  Lead  is  a  very  useful  black  pigment,  and  one 
that  is  used  quite  largely  in  rubber  works,  as  it  is  a  good  filler  and 
assists  in  vulcanization.  It  is  often  made  from  pure  white  lead 
by  very  simple  treatment.  It  materially  assists  the  resiliency  of 
Para  compounds. 

SULPHUR  LOTUM. — A  name  for  sublimed  sulphur  that  has 
been  washed  to  move  sulphurous  acids,  and  carefully  dried. 

SULPHIDE  OF  ZINC. — Sulphur  forms  with  zinc  two  sulphides. 
One  of  these,  the  mono-sulphide,  corresponds  to  zinc  blende, 
which,  as  found  native,  is  of  various  colors,  from  yellow  to  black. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  from  3.5  to  4.2.  The  other  is  a  penta-sul- 
phide artificially  prepared  and  occurs  in  the  form  of  a  white  pow- 
der. Upon  ignition  in  the  absence  of  air  this  latter  substance  loses 
four-fifths  of  its  sulphur,  but  the  temperature  at  which  this  takes 
place  is  too  high  to  render  it  available  as  a  source  of  sulphur  of 


SULPHUR.  59 

vulcanization  in  compounding  rubber  mixtures.  With  a  slight 
addition  of  sulphur  it  is  used  in  the  production  of  white  goods. 

SULPHUR  occurs  in  a  number  of  different  forms,  and  under 
various  names  as  brimstone,  flowers  or  flour  of  sulphur,  roll  sul- 
phur, rock  sulphur,  etc.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.98  to  2.06.  It 
melts  at  239°  F.,  thickens  and  becomes  orange  yellow  at  320°  F., 
at  428°  it  is  semi-solid  and  red,  and  on  carrying  the  heat 
higher  it  becomes  browner  and  boils  at  788°  F.  Some  of  the 
sulphur  now  used  commercially  is  recovered  from  alkali  waste, 
but  most  of  it  comes  from  Sicily,  where  it  is  found  native.  It  is 
more  generally  used  in  rubber  works  than  any  other  ingredient, 
and  in  all  proportions  from  3  per  cent,  up  to  100  per  cent,  of  the 
weight  of  the  rubber.  The  ordinary  form  in  which  it  is  found  in 
the  rubber  factory  is  in  a  yellow  powder,  known  as  flowers  of 
sulphur.  It  has  a  slight  affinity  for  moisture,  and  careful  manu- 
facturers keep  it  covered  from  air  to  avoid  the  formation  of  sul- 
phurous or  sulphuric  acids.  Mixed  with  certain  oils  by  heat,  it 
forms  the  black  sulphur  substitutes  that  are  often  used  in  rubber 
compounding.  Sulphur  in  the  form  of  rolled  brimstone  is  pul- 
verized, sifted,  and  used  in  the  place  of  flowers  of  sulphur,  in 
France,  and  is  equally  good  and  cheaper. 

SULPHUR  BALSAM. — A  solution  of  sulphur  in  fixed  oils,  con- 
sisting of  2  ounces  of  flowers  of  sulphur  in  8  ounces  of  linseed  oil, 
used  in  proofing  compounds. 

VERSUVIAN  WHITE. — A  special  vulcanizing  material  manu- 
factured in  England,  for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  tennis  balls 
and  other  goods. 

VULCANINE. — An  English  vulcanizing  preparation,  used  for 
both  steam  and  dry  heat  goods.  It  occurs  either  as  a  white  or  a 
black  powder,  depending  upon  the  line  of  goods  on  which  it  is  to 
be  used. 


CHAPTER  V. 

FILLERS  AND  OTHER   INGREDIENTS   USED   IN   DRY   MIXING   IN   RUBBER 

COMPOUNDS. 

INDIA-RUBBER  is  compounded  for  two  reasons,  the  first  being 
to  reduce  the  cost  without  destroying  the  usefulness  of  the  gum, 
the  second  being  to  impart  to  the  gum  qualities  possessed  by  a 
great  variety  of  mineral,  vegetable,  and  even  animal  substances. 
Each  of  the  ingredients  treated  in  this  chapter  has  some  specific 
use.  While  their  arrangement  may  seem  a  little  incoherent  to  the 
chemist,  it  will  be  fully  appreciated  and  understood  by  the  rubber 
manufacturer  whose  habit  of  mind  leads  him  to  reach  out  into 
any  of  the  kingdoms — animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral — for  assis- 
tants in  compounding  problems. 

ACETATE  OF  LEAD. — A  white  sweetish  tasting  powder  soluble 
in  water  and  alcohol.  In  its  crystaline  form  it  contains  about  7 
per  cent,  of  water  of  crystalization,  which  is  easily  driven  off  at  a 
temperature  of  say  80°  to  100°  F.  Its  specific  gravity  is :  crystal- 
ized,  2.3;  water  free,  2.5.  It  is  a  product  of  the  half  completed 
process  of  treating  pig  lead  where  the  old  Dutch  method  of  corro- 
sion is  employed  in  making  the  carbonate.  Its  use  in  semi-hard 
composition  was  patented  by  both  Goodyear  and  Payen.  India- 
rubber  dissolved  in  oil,  to  which  has  been  added  acetate  of  lead,  is 
used  to  fill  the  pores  of  certain  leathers  so  that  the  "filling"  shall 
not  come  through.  It  is  also  used  in  certain  varnishes  in  connec- 
tion with  Gutta-percha. 

AGALMATOLITE. — A  silicate  of  aluminum  and  potassium  re- 
sembling soapstone  which  is  soft  enough  to  be  carved  with  a  knife. 
It  has  no  advantages  over  talc,  silicate  of  magnesia,  or  soapstone 
in  rubber  use.  It  appears,  however,  in  some  patented  compounds, 
but  if  the  potash  principle  is  necessary,  it  can  be  easily  added  to 
the  ordinary  powdered  talc.  The  largest  deposits  of  this  material 
are  to  be  found  in  China. 

ANTIMONY. — See  Golden  Sulphuret  of  Antimony,  Black  An- 
timony, and  Kermes. 

ARGILLACEOUS  RED  SHALE. — The  shales,  clays,  and  feldspars 
are  all  very  closely  allied  and  pass  the  one  into  the  other  by  gradual 

60 


ALUMINA— ARSENIC.  61 

decay.  A  shale  that  has  a  large  amount  of  clay  in  it  is  termed 
Argillaceous,  and  the  substance  mentioned  in  the  heading  may  be 
briefly  termed  red  clay  tinctured  with  oxide  of  iron.  The  analysis 
of  Argillaceous  clay  shows:  Alumina  39,  silica  46,  water  13,  iron, 
magnesia,  and  lime  2.  It  was  the  basis  of  a  well-known  oil  resist- 
ing compound  that  for  years  baffled  imitation. 

ARTIFICIAL  SULPHURET  OF  LEAD. — See  Burnt  Hypo. 

ALUMINA. — The  oxide  of  aluminum  and  a  chief  consituent 
of  clay.  Its  specific  gravity  is  4.154.  Ordinarily  speaking  it  is 
a  very  inert  substance,  insoluble,  and  not  readily  attacked  by  acids. 
It  is  best  known  in  the  arts  under  the  forms  of  kaolin,  corundum, 
emery,  etc.  As  obtained  chemically  it  is  a  fine  white  glistening 
powder,  feeling  harsh  and  dry  to  the  touch.  Eaton's  formula  for 
the  use  of  oxide  of  aluminum  in  making  a  pure  white  rubber,  was 
India-rubber  40  per  cent.,  oxide  of  aluminum  55  per  cent.,  and 
sulphur  5  per  cent.  He  describes  his  process  for  making  the  pow- 
der, which  was  by  the  burning  of  sulphate  of  alumina. 

ANHYDRITE. — The  water  free  mineral  form  of  sulphate  of 
lime  or  gypsum.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  2.9,  and  is  formed 
artificially  by  heating  gypsum  so  as  to  drive  off  all  its  water.  It 
is  white  in  color  and  crystaline  in  form.  Gypsum  that  has  been 
overheated  in  the  preparation  of  plaster  of  paris  and  that  has  lost 
its  ability  to  "set"  is  pure  Anhydrite.  It  is  used  as  a  filler  in  rub- 
ber compounding  instead  of  whiting  or  paris  white. 

ARSENIC. — A  white  brittle  metal,  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
4.7  or  3.7,  according  to  its  form.  Also  a  popular  term  for  the 
oxide  of  arsenic  sometimes  called  the  white  arsenic,  which  is  a 
heavy  white  powder  of  the  specific  gravity  3.7.  White  arsenic  is 
slightly  soluble  in  cold  water  and  to  the  extent  of  10  per  cent,  in 
hot  water.  There  are  several  coloring  matters  formed  from  arse- 
nic, all  of  which  are  to  be  condemned  for  general  use.  The  most 
familar  are  paris  green,  realgar,  which  is  red,  and  orpiment, 
which  is  yellow.  The  white  oxide  is  rarely  used  in  rubber  work, 
and  is  to  be  avoided,  as  are  the  greens,  reds,  and  yellows.  The 
green  has  been  used  in  mechanical  rubber  goods,  but  the  color 
was  not  a  valuable  one.  Hancock  vulcanized  Gutta-percha  with 
orpiment,  and  Forster  used  it  in  "mosaic  work"  for  floor  cover- 
ings. An  anti-fouling  composition  for  ships'  bottoms  is  formed 


62  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

of  Gutta-percha,  copper,  bronze,  and  arsenic.  Another  is  formed 
of  India-rubber  2  pounds,  rosin  7  pounds,  and  arsenic  2  ounces. 

ASBESTIC. — The  part  of  the  rock  remaining  after  the  richer 
veins  of  asbestos  have  been  extracted.  This  remainder  is  a  purely 
fibrous  material,  clearly  showing  its  origin.  For  mechanical  uses 
it  is  ground  fine,  and  for  all  sorts  of  fireproofing  purposes  is  valu- 
able and  much  cheaper  than  long  fiber  asbestos.  It  is  mined  at 
Danville,  Lower  Canada.  It  makes  an  excellent  compounding 
material  for  asbestos  packings,  etc.,  in  connection  with  rubber. 

ASBESTINE. — A  pure  fibrous  silicate  of  magnesia,  called  also 
mineral  pulp.  It  is  mined  near  Gouverneur,  N.  Y.,  where  is  the 
only  deposit  at  present  known  where  magnesia  shows  so  distinct 
a  fiber.  It  is  very  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  paper,  and 
also  as  an  ingredient  in  rubber.  Apparently  the  pulverized  min- 
eral is  a  very  strong  white  powder,  but  in  actual  use  it  has  not 
much  more  covering  quality  than  whiting.  It  was  at  one  time 
used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber  shoes,  but,  aside  from 
being  inert  and  a  good  filler,  was  probably  no  better  than  whiting, 
while  it  was  more  costly.  It  is  often  used  in  white  goods,  in  con- 
nection with  oxide  of  zinc  to  make  a  light  weight  compound.  It 
is  also  known  as  agalite  and  asbestine  pulp.  Its  composition  is: 
Silica  62,  magnesia  33,  water  4,  iron  oxide  and  alumina  i. 

ASBESTOS  (Amianthus). — A  fibrous  silicate  of  calcium  and 
magnesia,  also  called  stone  flax,  Salamanda's  wool  (from  an  old 
belief  that  it  was  originally  made  from  the  wool  of  the  salaman- 
da),  cotton  stone,  mountain  flax,  mountain  wood,  and  mountain 
cork.  Its  specific  gravity  is  3.02  to  3.1.  An  analysis  of  the  2  best 
known  varieties  shows: 

Canadian.          Italian. 

Silica 40.92  40.25 

Magnesia 33-21  40.18 

Water  of  hydration 12.22  14.02 

Alumina 6.69  2.82 

Protoxide  of  iron 5-77  -75 

Soda 68  1.37 

Potash,  etc 22  .15 

Sulphuric  acid : traces  .31 

The  longest  fiber  is  possessed  by  the  Italian,  which  is  some- 
times 3  feet  in  length.  The  Canadian  ranges  from  3  to  6  inches 
in  length,  but  it  is  finer,  more  flexible,  and  more  easily  separated 


ASBESTOS— BLACK  ANTIMONY.  63 

than  the  Italian.  The  mineral  divides  iteslf  naturally  into  3 
classes:  The  first,  coarse,  brittle,  very  plentiful,  and  cheap;  the 
second,  possessing  well-defined  fibers  of  a  brownish  yellow  color, 
fragile,  and  containing  many  foreign  bodies ;  the  third,  with  pure 
white  silky  fibers  which  can  be  woven  into  textiles.  A  notable  use 
to  which  asbestos  has  been  put  in  United  States  is  in  the  produc- 
tion of  the  packing  known  as  Vulcabeston  (which  see).  Its  low 
conductivity  of  heat  renders  it  particularly  useful  in  steam  pack- 
ings, both  for  cylinder  work  and  for  joints,  while  its  incombusti- 
bility has  long  caused  it  to  be  used  for  fireproof  purposes.  There 
are  fibers  formed  of  serpentine  rock  which  are  much  used  as  a 
substitute  for  genuine  asbestos,  and  answer  nearly  as  well,  being, 
however,  shorter  in  fiber  and  somewhat  less  durable.  Almost  all 
large  rubber  manufacturers  produce  packings  in  which  there  is 
a  certain  amount  of  asbestos,  often  assisted  by  infusorial  earth, 
asbestine,  etc. 

ATMOID. — A  very  light  white  earthy  matter,  marketed  by  an 
English  corporation.  Analysis  proves  it  to  be  an  almost  pure  silica 
— quite  close,  in  fact,  to  infusorial  earth. 

BARYTES. — A  heavy  white  mineral  that  in  commerce  takes  the 
form  of  a  fine  white  or  gray  powder.  It  is  obtained  by  grinding 
the  mineral  heavy  spar,  or  by  chemical  means  from  baric  chloride. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  4.5.  It  occurs  in  commerce  under  the  names 
"permanent  white"  and  "blanc  fixe."  The  artificially  prepared 
substance  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  finely  ground  mineral,  on  ac- 
count of  its  less  crystaline  form.  The  commercial  article  should 
always  be  examined  to  determine  its  freedom  from  acid  impurities. 
Barytes  is  also  called  Witherite,  which  is  the  carbonate,  and  Heavy 
Spar,  which  is  the  sulphate.  Barytes  is  chiefly  used  as  an  adulte- 
rant for  white  lead  and  paints.  Thus  Venice  white  contains 
equal  parts  of  sulphate  of  barytes  and  white  lead ;  Hamburg  white, 
2  parts  to  2  parts  of  white  lead ;  and  Dutch  white,  3  parts  to  I  of 
white  lead.  It  is  wholly  inert  when  used  as  an  ingredient  in  rub- 
ber compounding,  and  increases  the  resiliency  of  rubber,  and  is  a 
make-weight. 

BLACK  ANTIMONY. — A  black  powder  obtained  by  grinding 
stibnite  or  antimony  ore.  It  is  a  sulphide  of  the  metal  and  is  met 
with  more  or  less  pure,  as  it  is  often  prepared  from  a  high  grade 


64  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

ore.  The  sulphur  contained  in  it  is  unavailable  for  vulcanizing 
purposes,  and  if  used  in  compounding  it  is  necessary  to  add  a  suf- 
ficiency of  sulphur  to  vulcanize.  In  the  purest  form  black  anti- 
mony contains  about  28  per  cent,  of  sulphur  and  72  per  cent,  of 
antimony.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  is  dissolved  by  muriatic 
acid  or  by  caustic  alkalies.  From  its  solution  in  alkali  a  fine  brown 
red  powder  may  be  obtained  by  treatment  with  a  dilute  acid,  and 
this  powder,  known  as  kermes,  has  the  same  chemical  composi- 
tion as  that  mentioned  above.  Its  specific  gravity  is  4.6.  It  was 
formerly  used  sometimes  as  a  filler,  as  it  was  believed  to  give  a 
soft  effect  in  molded  goods.  It  has  been  almost  wholly  displaced, 
however,  by  cheaper  and  better  ingredients. 

BLACK  HYPO. — See  Hypo-sulphite  of  Lead. 

BLACK  LEAD. — See  Plumbago. 

BLUE  LEAD. — Where  zinc  ores  are  found  in  combination  with 
galena,  or  natural  sulphide  of  lead,  the  two  are  often  smelted  to- 
gether with  raw  coal  and  slaked  lime,  producing  a  fume  called 
blue  powder,  which  is  sold  under  the  name  of  Blue  Lead.  It  is 
an  excellent  filler,  but  is  not  as  good  as  sublimed  lead,  for  exam- 
ple, as  it  does  not  impart  enough  resiliency  to  rubber.  Its  chief 
merit  is  its  cheapness.  A  very  fine  quality  of  Blue  Lead,  contain- 
ing considerable  lead  oxide,  is  now  on  the  market,  but  this  must 
not  be  confused  with  either  of  the  two  low  grade  articles  men- 
tioned in  these  paragraphs.  This  Blue  Lead  is  of  exceeding  fine- 
ness, and  gives  a  peculiarly  soft  finish  to  the  rubber.  Used  in  the 
place  of  litharge,  it  materially  assists  in  the  cure,  and  produces  a 
fine  black.  As  it  has  a  high  specific  gravity,  it  often  displaces 
barytes.  Blue  Lead  is  also  a  name  given  to  an  artificial  aluminous 
substance  occurring  either  as  a  loose  powder  or  in  a  concrete  form, 
colored  blue  by  means  of  some  kind  of  blue  dye— aniline  or  log- 
wood— which  does  not  contain  lead. 

BONE  ASH. — See  Phosphate  of  Lime. 

BONEBLACK. — See  Animal  Charcoal. 

BUCARAMANGUINA. — A  transparent  amber  colored,  incom- 
bustible material,  found  near  Bucaramanga,  Colombia.  It  is  some- 
what similar  to  asbestos,  for  which  it  has  been  mentioned  as  a  sub- 
stitute in  the  manufacture  of  packings. 

BURNT  UMBER. — An  earth  containing  a  large  amount  of  iron 


BURNT  UMBER— CHALK.  65 

oxide  of  a  dark  brown  rust  color.  As  mined  it  is  called  raw 
umber,  and  the  product  obtained  by  calcining  it  is  known  as  Burnt 
Umber.  It  is  a  fairly  useful  filler  in  compounding,  as  its  action, 
or  rather  lack  of  action,  upon  rubber  makes  it  safe  to  use.  It  is 
used  in  brown  packings  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  in  maroon  goods. 

CALAMINE. — An  ore  of  the  metal  zinc,  and  a  carbonate  of 
zinc.  Ordinary  Calamine,  which  is  a  silicate  of  the  metal,  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  3.6  to  4.4,  and  is  little  used  in  the  arts.  Noble 
Calamine,  or  native  carbonate  of  zinc,  is  a  gray  or  grayish  yellow 
to  brown  powder,  according  to  its  priority.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  3.4  to  4.4.  Its  nature  is  earthy,  and  heat  has  no  action  upon 
it.  A  little  of  it  is  said  to  toughen  soft  compounds. 

CALCIUM  WHITE. — Another  name  for  Whiting. 

CALOMEL. — A  white,  tasteless,  and  inodorous  powder  of  spe- 
cific gravity  about  7.2.  It  is  permanent  in  the  air,  but  should  be 
kept  in  the  dark,  as  light  blackens  it.  When  pure  it  may  be  wholly 
volatilized  by  heat,  but  if  this  cannot  be  done,  then  the  sample 
tested  contains  other  bodies.  Calomel  strikes  a  black  color  under 
the  action  of  alkalies.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  or 
benzine.  It  is  the  basis  of  a  compound  for  rendering  woven  hose 
waterproof,  the  other  ingredients  being  magnesia,  black  antimony, 
oxide  of  zinc,  tar,  sulphur,  and  India-rubber.  Its  office  is  to  hasten 
the  cure. 

CARBONATE  OF  BARYTA. — Known  also  as  the  mineral  wither  - 
ite;  has  a  specific  gravity  of  4.3.  It  is  a  white  powder  insoluble 
in  water  and  alcohol.  (See  Barytes.) 

CARBONATE  OF  LEAD. — See  White  Lead. 

CARBONATE  OF  LIME. — Very  familiar  under  the  form  of  lime- 
stone, marble,  or  chalk.  Specific  gravity  2.7  and  2.9.  (See  Whit- 
ing.) 

CARBURET  OF  IRON. — A  name  given  to  a  mixture  of  graphite 
and  oxide  of  iron.  A  fine  black-brown  powder,  fairly  heavy  spe- 
cifically, although  variable.  It  makes  a  fair  filler  in  compounding 
being  inert  and  strongly  coherent.  In  packings  it  has  been  largely 
used  and  also  in  compounds  for  wagon  covers  and  tarpaulins 
before  reclaimed  rubber  came  largely  into  use.  It  has  also  been 
used  in  cements  for  card  clothing. 

CHALK. — A  white  soft,  somewhat  gritty  substance,  consist- 


66  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

ing  chiefly  of  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  made  up  of  myriads  of  very 
small  shells  of  marine  animals  long  extinct.  Its  nature  is  earthy ; 
that  is  to  say,  it  is  not  easily  affected  by  ordinary  bodies.  Acids 
disengage  carbonic  acid  gas  from  it.  Its  specific  gravity  is  2.9. 
If  heated  to  a  red  heat,  carbonic  acid  gas  escapes  and  quicklime  is 
left  behind.  (  See  Whiting. ) 

CHARCOAL  (ANIMAL). — Animal  charcoal  is  made  from  cal- 
cined bones  and  has  the  property,  in  a  high  degree,  of  absorbing 
odors.  It  is  often  used,  therefore,  in  deodorizing  rubber  goods, 
and  experimentally  by  chemists  for  filtering  Gutta-percha  dis- 
solved in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  where  a  perfectly  clear  product 
is  desired.  Its  use  is  advised  by  Forster  in  Gutta-percha  com- 
pounds, and  by  Warne,  Jaques,  and  others  for  making  packings  to 
stand  a  high  degree  of  heat.  (See  Boneblack.) 

CHARCOAL  (VEGETABLE). — This  is  a  popular  term  for  the 
coal  produced  by  the  charring  of  wood.  There  are  many  mate- 
rials which  are  really  charcoals,  such  as  animal,  charcoal  just 
quoted,  carbon,  coke,  graphite,  and  wood  charcoal.  All  of  these 
are  practically  the  same  in  their  pure  states,  being  almost  wholly 
carbon.  Wood  charcoal,  which  is  what  is  meant  in  rubber  com- 
pounding by  vegetable  charcoal,  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen,  the  last  two  being  in  the  proportion  to  form  water. 
As  it  retains  the  form  of  the  wood  from  which  it  is  made,  it  is 
powdered  before  use.  It  is  black  and  brittle,  insoluble  in  water, 
infusible,  and  non-volatile  in  the  most  intense  heat.  It  has  the 
power  of  condensing  gases  and  destroying  bad  smells.  Charcoal 
may  or  may  not  be  a  bad  conductor  of  heat  and  a  good  conductor 
of  electricity,  these  properties  depending  upon  the  wood  from 
which  it  is  made.  Technically,  it  is  divided  into  hard  wood 
charcoal  and  soft  wood  charcoal.  Its  composition  at  ordi- 
nary temperatures  is  about  as  follows:  Carbon  85  per  cent., 
water  12  per  cent.,  ash  3  per  cent.  It  is  used  in  rubber 
compounding  in  certain  vulcanite  varnishes  and  in  certain  insu- 
lated wire  compounds.  For  this  latter  use,  willow  charcoal  is 
preferable,  as  it  is  a  decided  non-conductor.  It  has  also  been  used 
in  sponge  rubber,  with  the  idea  that  it  acts  as  a  preservative  in  a 
compound  which  is  very  likely  to  be  short  lived.  One  curious  use 
for  it,  a  possible  and  valuable  one,  was  in  the  attempted  manufac- 


CHARCOAL— CORK.  67 

ture  of  cop  tubes  from  Gutta-percha  and  Charcoal.  Macintosh 
also  used  large  quantities  of  ground  charcoal  in  place  of  lamp- 
black in  some  of  his  compounds.  A  French  substitute  for  vul- 
canite paints  or  lacquers  is  made  of  10  pounds  of  bitumen,  15  parts 
of  Charcoal,  and  a  little  linseed  oil,  mixed  by  heating. 

CHINA  CLAY. —  See  Kaolin. 

COMPO. — A  name  for  a  composition  used  in  rubber  manu- 
facture in  the  United  States  years  ago,  but  not  in  use  now.  The 
name,  however,  clings  to  two  compounds  sold  by  an  English 
chemical  house  for  use  in  rubber  work.  They  are  of  a  secret  na- 
ture. No.  I  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  oil-resisting  valves 
and  in  tubing  for  chemical  factories,  in  the  proportion  of  30 
pounds  of  Compo  to  10  pounds  of  rubber.  No.  2  is  used  for  soles 
for  tennis  shoes  and  in  mechanical  goods,  in  the  proportion  of  25 
pounds  of  Compo  to  10  pounds  of  rubber. 

CORNWALL  CLAY. — See  Kaolin. 

CORK,  in  granulated  or  powdered  form,  has  long  been  a  favor- 
ite ingredient  in  rubber  compounding.  Not  that  it  is  used  in  any 
such  measure  as  whiting  or  barytes,  but  many  mills  have  used  it, 
and  a  few  in  large  proportions.  Used  in  connection  with  India- 
rubber  and  Gutta-percha,  it  has  been  the  subject  of  some  fifty  pa- 
tents. Its  largest  use,  perhaps,  was  in  the  manufacture  of  Kamp- 
tulicon,  where  India-rubber  is  used  as  a  binding  material,  and  in 
linoleum,  where  oxidized  oils  are  used  in  place  of  rubber.  It  was 
also  used  in  what  was  known  as  leather  rubber,  in  which  palm 
oil  distillate,  a  little  India-rubber,  and  a  good  deal  of  granulated 
cork  were  used.  At  one  time  it  was  also  compounded  with  rubber 
and  made  up  into  a  waterproof  felt  for  hats.  It  also  went  into 
compounds  to  resist  heat,  into  cricket  balls,  and  into  golf  balls, 
where  it  was  compounded  with  Gutta-percha  and  enough  metal 
filings  added  to  give  the  necessary  weight.  A  rubber  blanket  used 
in  special  manufacture  also  had  its  surface  covered  with  granu- 
lated Cork  as  an  absorbent  material.  In  some  cases  the  Cork  was 
charred  and  roasted  to  remove  what  resinous  matter  might  be  in 
it,  while  in  others  resinous  matter  was  removed  by  boiling  in  alco- 
hol. As  is  generally  known,  Cork  is  the  bark  of  the  cork  oak,  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe  and  north  of  Africa.  The  chief  sup- 
plies come  from  Spain  and  Portugal.  Cork  is  the  basis  of  the 


68  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

fine  black  known  as  Spanish  black,  which  is  made  by  burning  the 
refuse  in  close  vessels. 

CORUNDUM. — A  mineral  which  is  nearly  pure  alumina,  yet 
of  great  specific  gravity,  and  of  exceeding  hardness,  being  inferior, 
in  this  respect,  only  to  the  diamond.  Emery  (which  see),  so 
largely  used  as  a  polishing  substance,  is  a  variety  of  Corundum. 

DIATOMACEOUS  EARTH. — See  Infusorial  Earth. 

ELECTRIC  FACING. — See  Farina. 

EMERY. — The  average  composition  of  Emery  may  be  taken 
as  atlumina  82,  oxide  of  iron  10,  silica  6,  lime  ij.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  about  3.8  to  4.  It  is  prepared  by  breaking  the  stone 
at  first  into  lumps  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  then  running  it 
through  stamps,  and  crushing  it  to  powder.  It  is  then  sifted  to 
various  degrees  of  fineness,  and  graded  according  to  the  meshes 
of  the  sieve.  Emery  is  next  in  hardness  to  diamond  dust  and 
crystaline  corundum,  and  it  is  used  chiefly  as  an  abrading  agent. 
Prior  to  the  invention  of  vulcanite,  emery  wheels  were  made  by 
mixing  clay  and  emery  in  suitable  mounds,  and  vitrifying  them 
like  common  earthenware.  In  rubber  mills  it  is  chiefly  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  what  are  known  as  vulcanite  emery  wheels. 
It  is  also  used  in  grinding  and  sharpening  compounds,  as  hones 
and  strops.  (See  also  Alumina  and  Corundum.)  A  certain 
amount  of  it  also  gives  the  desired  surface  to  rubber  blackboards. 

FARINA. — This  is  sometimes  used  in  small  quantities  in  un- 
usual mixtures  as  a  compound,  but  has  little  value,  as  there  are 
many  better  substitutes  for  it.  A  practical  use  for  it,  however,  is 
the  brushing  of  a  rubber  surface  with  it  before  vulcanization, 
when  it  is  necessary  to  have  printing  or  stamping  done  upon  that 
surface  afterwards.  Farina  is  made  largely  of  potatoes,  another 
name  for  it  being  Potato  Starch.  The  process  consists  simply  of 
crushing,  sifting,  washing,  bleaching,  and  grinding,  which  is  re- 
peated three  times,  and  each  time  the  starch  granules  separate 
and  are  collected.  Potato  Starch  will  be  remembered  by  rubber 
manufacturers  as  the  material  which  the  gossamer  makers  used 
successfully  for  a  number  of  years  in  the  production  of  the  "elec- 
tric" or  "corruscus"  finish.  Bone  ash  is  used  sometimes  in  the 
place  of  Farina,  where  rubber  surfaces  are  to  be  printed  upon. 

FELDSPAR. — A  name  given  to  a  group  of  silicates  of  which 


FELDSPAR— FOSSIL  FARINA.  69 

the  principal  ones  are  Orthoclase  or  potash,  containing  silica,  alu- 
mina, and  potash,  and  having  a  specific  gravity  of  2.5  ;  Albite,  con- 
taining silica,  alumina,  and  soda,  specific  gravity  2.61 ;  Oligo- 
clase,  containing  silica,  alumina,  soda,  and  lime,  specific  gravity 
2.66;  and  Anorthite,  containing  silica,  alumina,  and  lime,  with  a 
specific  gravity  of  2.75.  The  feldspars  by  the  action  of  the  weather 
break  down  into  china  clay,  kaolin,  or  pottery  clays.  Ground  very 
fine,  they  have  been  used  in  the  production  of  rubber  enamels  and 
lacquers. 

FIRE  CLAY. — A  kind  of  clay  which,  better  than  any  other, 
resists  the  action  of  heat  and  direct  flame.  It  is  composed  prin- 
cipally of  silica  and  alumina,  with  traces  of  the  alkali  earths.  The 
best  is  found  in  conjunction  with  coal,  and  is  called  Stourbridge 
clay.  Its  specific  gravity  it  about  2.5,  and  its  color  dirty  white. 
Mixed  with  vulcanized  India-rubber,  dissolved  in  tar  oil  and  sul- 
phur, it  forms  a  compound  which,  when  applied  to  hot  joints, 
cures  at  once. 

FLINT  is  practically  pure  silica  and  has  the  specific  gravity 
of  2.63.  The  nature  of  the  powder  obtained  by  grinding  is  al- 
ways sharp  and  gritty.  It  is  unacted  upon  by  all  ordinary  means, 
and  with  difficulty  even  in  the  laboratory  of  the  chemist.  Its  prin- 
cipal use,  perhaps,  is  in  the  manufacture  of  glass.  Flint  varies  in 
color  from  yellow  and  brown  to  black.  It  has  been  used  in  era- 
sive  rubbers,  although  pumice  stone  is  better. 

FLOUR  OF  GLASS. — Glass  powdered  and  sifted  through  a  fine 
sieve  of  150  meshes  to  the  inch.  Glass  varies  much  in  its  com- 
position, the  more  common  kinds  containing  lime,  while  the  so- 
called  flint  glass  contains  lead.  Potash  and  soda  also  enter  into 
the  composition  of  glass;  hence  all  flour  of  glass  will  contain 
those  ingredients  which  entered  into  the  composition  of  the  glass 
it  was  obtained  from.  Generally  speaking,  Flour  of  Glass  may 
be  considered  an  inert  substance  under  ordinary  conditions,  though 
the  softer  kinds  are  attacked  even  by  boiling  water.  It  was  used 
by  Newton  and  Wray  in  insulated  wire  compounds,  and  has  also 
been  used  in  certain  packings. 

FLOUR  OF  PHOSPHATE. — See  Phosphate  of  Lime. 

FOSSIL  FARINA,  also  called  mountain  milk,  is  an  earth  similar 
to  infusorial  earth.  It  is  obtained  from  China  and  consists  of  sil- 


70  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

ica  50^,  alumina  26^,  magnesia  9,  water  and  organic  matter  13, 
with  traces  of  lime  and  oxide  of  iron.  It  has  been  used  in  rubber 
compounding  for  the  production  of  packings  and  semi-hard 
valves. 

FOSSIL  MEAL. — A  kind  of  earthy  mineral,  principally  com- 
posed of  the  minute  shells  of  very  small  animals  long  extinct.  It 
is  similar  to  infusorial  earth,  lime  and  silica  entering  chiefly  into 
its  composition.  It  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  infusorial 
earth  (which  see)  or  silica. 

FRENCH  CHALK. — This  is  ground  and  sifted  talc,  forming  a 
white,  greasy-feeling  powder.  Its  chemical  composition  is  hydra- 
ted  silicate  of  magnesia,  the  water  being  chemically  combined. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  2.  (See  Talc.) 

FULLER'S  EARTH. — A  kind  of  clay.  It  is  a  greenish  or  brown- 
ish earthy,  somewhat  greasy-feeling,  substance,  having  a  shining 
streak  when  rubbed.  Its  composition  is :  Silica  70,  oxide  iron  2.5, 
alumina  3.5,  lime  6.  combined  water  16,  magnesia  trace,  phosphoric 
acid  trace,  salt  2,  alkalies  trace.  Fuller's  Earth  is  found  in  exten- 
sive deposits  in  England,  where  its  annual  consumption  at  one 
time  exceeded  2,000  tons,  chiefly  in  the  woolen  manufacture,  for 
fulling  cloth.  Its  specific  gravity  is  from  1.8  to  2.2.  It  is  used  in 
rubber  compounding  for  about  the  same  purposes  as  infusorial 
earth,  and  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber  type. 

GRAPHITE. — See  Plumbago. 

GYPSUM. — See  Sulphate  of  Lime. 

INFUSORIAL  EARTH. — This  is  obtained  usually  from  deposits 
at  the  bottom  of  inland  waters,  and  consists  of  the  minute  siliceous 
remains  of  infusoria  or  microscopical  animals.  It  is  known  also 
as  fossil  flour,  mountain  flour,  and  infusorial  flour.  The  largest 
deposits,  in  the  form  of  a  fine  white  or  pinkish  powder,  are  found 
in  Nova  Scotia  and  in  Germany.  This  earth  is  a  wonderful  non- 
conductor of  heat,  and,  in  connection  with  asbestos,  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  boiler  coverings.  It  is  used  also  in  small  propor- 
tions in  various  rubber  compounds,  where  it  increases  both 
strength  and  resiliency,  though  if  used  in  excess  it  makes  a  very 
hard  compound.  The  best  grades  are  wholly  free  from  vegetable 
matter,  are  nearly  pure  silica,  and  perfectly  indifferent  to  corrosive 
substances.  Under  the  name  of  diatomaceous  silica  it  is  used  in 


IRON  PYRITES— LIME.  71 

a  formula  for  elastic  valve  packing,  patented  by  A.  B.  Jenkins, 
United  States.  This  packing  is  described  as  practically  indestruc- 
tible in  steam  or  water,  oils,  acids,  etc. 

IRON  PYRITES. — A  sulphuret  of  iron,  commonly  of  a  bright, 
brass  yellow  color;  a  very  plentiful  mineral  often  mistaken  for 
gold.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid,  while  sul- 
phur is  also  obtained  from  it  by  sublimation.  It  was  used  by 
Warne,  Fanshaw,  and  others  in  the  manufacture  of  packings  to 
resist  a  high  degree  of  heat.  The  sulphur  in  Iron  Pyrites  has  also 
been  used  in  vulcanization.  Warne,  in  one  of  his  heat  resisting 
packings,  patented  the  use  of  Iron  Pyrites,  and,  in  the  compound 
that  he  gives  as  an  example,  leaves  out  the  whole  or  a  portion  of 
the  sulphur  usually  employed.  (See  Vulcanization.) 

KERMES. — A  brownish  red  form  of  sulphide  of  antimony, 
artificially  prepared  by  boiling  in  carbonate  of  soda.  If  left  to 
itself  the  solution  will  partly  deposit  a  very  fine  powder  of  Kermes, 
while  the  clear  solution  may  be  further  treated  with  a  weak  acid 
to  obtain  the  remainder.  Kermes  will  not  vulcanize  rubber  with- 
out the  addition  of  sulphur.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  4.5.  Its 
composition  is  28  per  cent,  sulphur  and  72  per  cent,  antimony.  It 
is  rarely  used  in  rubber  compounding. 

LIME. — The  oxide  of  the  metal  calcium.  It  is  commonly 
known  in  two  states,  viz. :  Quick  Lime,  which  is  the  pure  oxide, 
and  Slaked  Lime,  which  is  the  hydrated  oxide  mixed  with  some 
carbonate.  Quick  lime  is  a  white  solid  substance  of  specific  gra- 
vity 3.2.  It  is  not  stable,  taking  up  water  and  carbonic  acid  from 
the  air  and  breaking  down  into  a  fine  white  powder,  usually  called 
air-slaked  lime.  Its  power  of  absorbing  water  has  caused  it  to  be 
favorably  used  in  drying  operations,  while  the  insoluble  com- 
pounds it  forms  with  various  oils  have  led  to  its  being  considered 
as  a  drier,  although  this  action  is  not  properly  to  be  called  one  of 
drying.  Lime  air  slaked  is  used  in  rubber  work,  where  there  may 
be  a  little  moisture  in  a  compound,  which  it  readily  neutralizes.  It 
is  also  used  in  soft  cements  in  connection  with  tallow  and  India- 
rubber,  but  only  where  the  rubber  has  been  melted  and  the  cement 
is  of  the  non-drying  variety.  In  compositions  like  that  of  SorePs, 
Lime  is  introduced  to  effect  a  combination  between  resin  acids 
found  in  the  resin  and  resin  oil.  Excess  of  Lime  in  India-rubber 


72  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

is  injurious,  because  it  renders  the  compound  too  open,  thus  induc- 
ing oxidation.  When  used  in  small  quantities,  aside  from  its  effect 
upon  moisture,  it  combines  with  free  sulphur  and  modifies  its 
continued  action  upon  the  rubber.  It  must  be  remembered,  how- 
ever, that  lime  diminishes  the  resiliency  of  India-rubber,  while  it 
increases  the  hardness  of  both  hard  and  soft  rubber.  It  may  be 
used  in  small  quantities  in  insulated  wire,  and  in  a  measure  assists 
the  insulating  capacity  of  the  rubber.  Calcium  carbonate,  in  con- 
nection with  colcothar  and  methol  alcohol,  is  used  as  a  compound 
for  cleansing  vulcanite.  Rubber  also  cures  quicker  when  com- 
pounded with  Lime. 

LITHARGE. — One  of  the  oxides  of  the  lead,  known  as  the 
monoxide.  When  pure  its  specific  gravity  is  9.36.  Commercial 
litharge  often  contains  carbonic  acid  gas  and  water  taken  up  from 
the  air.  These  may  be  removed  by  strong  heating.  It  has  a  pecu- 
liar property,  the  nature  of  which  is  yet  a  debated  question,  by 
virtue  of  which  it  renders  oil  more  easily  oxidized,  or,  as  it  is  com- 
monly called,  rendered  dry.  There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
this  action  is  available  with  caoutchouc.  The  best  Litharge  is 
made  from  pig  lead,  which  is  placed  in  a  reverberatory  furnace 
and  exposed  to  a  current  of  air,  which  reduces  it  to  an  oxide.  It 
has  been  noted  in  rubber  factories  that  certain  men  seem  specially 
sensitive  to  the  effects  of  Litharge,  often  developing  serious  symp- 
toms of  lead  poisoning.  Persons  who  show  any  symptons  should 
pay  scrupulous  attention  to  personal  cleanliness.  It  is  said  that 
such  persons  have  been  cured  by  taking  them  out  of  the  mixing 
room  entirely,  and  putting  them  to  work  on  vulcanizers,  particu- 
larly where  they  open  and  handle  the  goods  from  the  finished  heat, 
the  theory  being  that  the  sulphur  fumes  neutralize  the  effects  of 
the  leads.  Possibly  there  is  a  grain  of  wisdom  in  this,  for  the 
old  fashioned  treatment  for  lead  poisoning  was  sulphur  baths  and 
the  drinking  of  water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid  or  the  acid 
or  sulphate  of  magnesia.  Litharge  is  not  only  a  valuable  filler 
for  rubber,  but  has  the  faculty  of  hastening  vulcanization  in  a 
marked  degree.  All  dry  heat  goods  depend  upon  it,  and  in  mold 
work  and  general  mechanical  goods  it  is  used  whenever  possible. 
Of  course,  it  is  generally  available  for  dark  or  black  effects  only. 

LITHOPHONE. — See  Colors. 


MAGNESIA— MICA.  73 

LITHARGITE. — A  substitute  for  litharge,  made  of  a  mixture 
of  pulverized  and  calcined  magnesia  and  oxide  of  lead. 

MAGNESIA. — The  oxide  of  the  metal  magnesium.  A  white 
dry  powder  which,  when  mixed  with  water,  forms  a  hard  com- 
pact mass  like  marble.  Its  specific  gravity  is  3.65.  It  is  earthy 
in  its  nature,  having  no  taste,  but  producing  a  sense  of  dryness  in 
the  mouth  owing  to  its  absorption  of  the  water  therein.  It  is  fre- 
quently called  calcined  magnesia  from  the  method  of  preparation 
by  burning  magnesia  alba.  Its  use  in  rubber  is  to  increase  its 
toughness  and  resiliency,  which  it  does  to  a  marked  degree  when 
used  in  moderation.  Magnesia  is  also  used  in  the  production  of 
compounds  like  balenite,  its  use  in  hard  rubber  compounds  being 
to  increase  resiliency  as  well  as  hardness.  A  very  small  quantity 
of  it  is  also  used  in  compounds  for  insulated  wire,  where  it  is 
said  to  increase  the  insulating  qualities  of  rubber.  Carbonate  of 
magnesia  occurs  native  in  the  mineral  magnesite  and,  in  connec- 
tion with  carbonate  of  lime,  as  dolomite. 

MANGANESE. — A  metal  of  the  iron  group;  gray  or  reddish 
white  in  color,  and  must  be  kept  under  rock  oil  or  in  well  sealed 
vessels,  being  easily  destroyed  by  the  air.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
7.2.  Manganese  is  obtained  artificially  as  a  black  powder,  by  ex- 
posing the  peroxide  to  prolonged  heat.  When  ignited  it  is  con- 
verted into  a  red  oxide,  which  corresponds  to  the  black  oxide  of 
iron.  The  black  Manganese  of  commerce  is  the  peroxide.  Oxides 
of  Manganese  have  a  destructive  effect  on  rubber  and  blacks  that 
contain  this,  as  they  sometimes  do,  are  to  be  avoided.  Mangan- 
ese is  used  in  connection  with  pitch,  turpentine,  and  Gutta-percha 
for  making  Brandt's  cement. 

MARBLE  FLOUR. — This  is  the  finely  ground  chips  of  white 
marble,  and  is  composed  almost  wholly  of  carbonate  of  lime.  It 
is  a  heavy  inert  powder,  often  used  in  rubber  compounding  as  a 
susbtitute  for  barytes.  It  has  also  been  used  to  some  extent  in 
hard  rubber,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  hones. 

MASSISOT. — An  oxide  of  lead,  dull  red  orange  in  color.  A 
higher  degree  of  oxidation  turns  this  into  a  product  called 
Minium,  which  is  its  purest  state.  It  is  often  used  in  rubber  com- 
pounds, acting  practically  like  litharge. 

MICA  is  the  name  given  to  a  group  of  complex  silicates  con- 


74  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

taining  aluminum  and  potassium,  generally  with  magnesium  but 
rarely  with  lime.  Their  specific  gravity  ranges  from  2.8  to  3.2, 
while  their  color  varies  greatly.  Ground  mica  is  simply  one  or 
other  of  these  micas  reduced  to  powder.  It  is  used  in  rubber 
compounding  chiefly  for  insulating  purposes.  It  is  handled  as  a 
cement,  compounded  with  rubber,  and  cut  with  benzine,  or  may  be 
mixed  dry  on  the  grinder.  It  is  also  used  in  fireproof  coverings 
in  connection  with  rubber,  and  it  is  said  that  for  a  semi-hard  result 
that  is  to  come  in  contact  with  hot  water,  rubber  and  Mica  forms 
the  best  compound.  Mica  in  a  state  of  a  very  fine  powder  is  also 
known  as  "cat's  gold"  or  "caf  s  silver." 

MINERAL  WOOL. — Produced  by  sending  blasts  of  steam 
through  molten  slag,  which  reduces  the  fluid  metal  to  a  fiber 
similar  to  the  fused  glass  that  is  spun  into  glass  silk.  Natural 
mineral  wool,  such  as  is  found  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  is  very 
brittle,  but  the  artificial  has  considerable  toughness.  It  is  also 
known  as  slag  wool,  or  silicate  cotton.  It  appears  in  light  fleecy 
masses,  and  at  a  distance  looks  like  fine  cotton  batting.  It  is  very 
cheap,  but  is  easily  affected  by  weak  acids,  and  should  be  kept 
away  from  a  moist  atmosphere.  It  has  not  been  largely  used  in 
rubber  work  as  yet,  but  Lascelles-Scott  strongly  advises  its  use, 
giving  as  reasons  its  cheapness  and  its  physical  fitness.  The  sul- 
phides present  in  it  also  assist  in  vulcanization. 

MINIUM. — One  of  the  oxides  of  lead,  known  also  as  Red 
Lead  (which  see).  It  is  a  scarlet  crystaline  and  granular  powder, 
having  a  specific  gravity  of  8.6  to  9.  i .  On  heating,  it  temporarily 
changes  color  to  violet  and  black,  but  returns  again  to  the  scarlet 
on  cooling.  It  is  adulterated  with  oxide  of  iron  and  brick  dust. 

MOUNTAIN  FLOUR. — See  Infusorial  Earth. 

ORANGE  MINERAL. — A  red  lead  made  from  carbonate  of  lead, 
while  red  lead  is  made  from  litharge.  As  a  general  rule,  it  con- 
tains some  lead  carbonate.  It  differs  from  red  lead  in  color,  in 
that  it  is  more  orange  red,  and  more  brilliant.  The  reason  for 
this  difference  is  that  it  is  less  crystaline,  its  particles  being  much 
finer  than  those  of  red  lead.  The  pigment  is  also  more  bulky  and 
much  smoother.  It  is  used  in  finer  grades  of  dark  rubber,  to  assist 
the  cure  and  impart  resiliency. 

OXIDE  OF  ALUMINUM. — See  Alumina. 


THE  OXIDES.  75 

OXIDE  OF  ANTIMONY. — There  are  really  three  of  these  oxides. 
The  tri-oxide,  one  most  useful  in  the  arts,  is  a  snow  white  pow- 
der of  the  specific  gravity  of  5.2.  It  may  be  obtained  by  treating 
stibnite  or,  better  still,  powdered  antimony  metal  with  nitric  acid, 
in  a  current  of  air  sufficient  to  carry  off  the  copious  fumes  arising 
during  the  operation,  or  by  treating  the  chloride  of  antimony  with 
cold  water  for  several  days.  A  mixture  of  the  tri-oxide  with  a 
small  percentage  of  the  insoluble  peroxide  may  be  obtained  by 
melting  antimony  in  a  cast  iron  retort  fitted  with  nozzles,  through 
which  air  may  be  blown  so  as  to  bubble  through  the  melted  metal. 
Dense  white  fumes  arise,  which  may  be  condensed  in  suitable 
chambers  into  a  snow  white  powder.  This  is  used  in  coloring 
dental  vulcanite. 

OXIDE  OF  GOLD. — As  a  matter  of  curiosity  it  may  be  noted 
that  this  is  the  most  costly  ingredient  suggested  for  rubber  com- 
pounding. It  occurs  in  two  forms — the  protoxide,  a  dark  green 
or  bluish  violet  powder,  and  the  teroxide,  a  brown  powder.  The 
use  of  the  protoxide  was  patented  by  Ninck.  For  dental  vulcan- 
ite is  is  doubtful  if  either  form  of  the  oxide  could  be  used,  even 
if  the  price  were  so  low  as  to  bring  it  within  reach.  Another 
formula  calls  for  the  mechanical  admixture  of  gold  leaf,  which 
is  practicable — if  one  possesses  the  gold. 

OXIDE  OF  LEAD. — See  Minium  and  Litharge. 

OXIDE  OF  TIN. — The  article  most  frequently  used  in  the  arts 
is  the  di-oxide.  This  is  a  white  water-fre*  powder,  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  6.7,  insoluble  in  acids  and  such  solvents  as  naphtha, 
petroleum,  etc.  It  is  infusible,  except  at  a  very  high  temperature, 
and  is  tasteless  and  inodorous.  What  is  known  as  French  Oxide 
of  Tin  is  simply  a  carefully  prepared  and  purified  form  of  the  di- 
oxide. It  is  rarely  used  in  rubber  work,  although  Newton  recom- 
mends it  for  a  basic  ingredient  in  rubber  type.  The  other  oxides 
of  tin  are  at  present  merely  of  chemical  interest. 

OXIDE  OF  ZINC. — See  Colors. 

OXYCHLORIDE  OF  LEAD. — There  are  several  oxychlorides  of 
lead.  The  substance  once  known  as  Turner's  Yellow  and  another 
known  as  Carsel  Yellow  were  both  of  this  composition.  More  re- 
cently a  white  compound  has  been  prepared,  which,  from  its  cover- 
ing power,  has  been  used  largely  as  a  paint.  Tarpaulin  compounds 


76  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

consisting  of  India-rubber,  coal  tar,  and  pitch  are  treated  with 
Oxychloride  of  Lead  for  surface  drying,  in  lieu  of  vulcanization. 

PAGODITE. — A  mineral  resembling  steatite  or  soapstone.  Its 
name  comes  from  its  having  been  used  in  the  East  as  a  material 
for  carving  miniature  temples  or  pagodas  from,  as  it  is  soft  enough 
to  be  cut  with  a  knife.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  the  same  as 
that  of  soapstone,  and  its  color  greenish  white.  (See  Agalmato- 
lite.) 

PARIS  WHITE. — This  has  exactly  the  same  composition  as 
Whiting,  but  is  a  much  harder  and  more  compact  form  of  English 
chalk,  and  therefore  has  greater  density.  Spanish  White  is  a 
coarser  variety  of  the  same  material.  Its  uses  are  practically  the 
same  as  those  of  whiting. 

PETRIFITE. — A  white  powder  composed  of  two  inexpensive  but 
secret  substances.  When  mixed  with  water  it  solidifies  quickly, 
and  is  an  excellent  binding  substance.  Mixed  with  marble  dust, 
it  is  sometimes  melted  and  cast  upon  glass  or  other  smooth  sur- 
faces, and  makes  an  excellent  table  top  in  place  of  the  zinc  tables 
used  in  many  rubber  factories.  As  it  is  perfectly  impervious  to 
ordinary  solvents,  neither  cement  nor  India-rubber  sticks  to  it.  It 
is  manufactured  in  England. 

PEROXIDE  OF  LEAD. — The  highest  oxide  of  lead — a  dark 
brown  powder  with  a  specific  gravity  of  about  9.  It  is  easily 
decomposed,  and  from  this  characteristic  it  has  a  strong  oxidizing 
action.  Exposed  to  sun  light  or  to  heat,  it  yields  oxygen  and 
passes  into  the  lower  oxide  known  as  Red  Lead.  Its  oxidizing 
properties  make  it  a  questionable  ingredient  in  compounding  rub- 
ber, although  certain  formulas  call  for  its  presence. 

PEROXIDE  OF  MANGANESE. — Another  name  for  Black  Oxide 
of  Manganese,  which  is  a  black  powder  having  a  specific  gravity 
of  4.8.  It  is  not  readily  acted  on  in  ordinary  ways,  being  un- 
changed by  heat  short  of  bright  red.  It  is  insoluble  in  the  ordi- 
nary hydrocarbon  solvents.  Solvent  naphtha  was  treated  with 
Peroxide  of  Manganese  by  Humphry  to  free  it  from  water.  (  See 
Manganese. ) 

PHOSPHATE  OF  LIME. — The  chief  constituent  of  animal  bones, 
forming  the  bulk  of  the  ashes  of  the  same  when  burnt.  It  is  a 
white  powder,  and  when  in  crystaline  mineral  form,  it  has  a 


PHOSPHORUS.  77 

specific  gravity  of  3.18.  It  is  insoluble  in  ether,  alcohol,  or  the 
benzine  class  of  solvents.  As  it  occurs  naturally  it  is  known  as 
flour  of  phosphate  and  is  used  in  part  as  a  substitute  for  whiting. 
Bone  ash  made  from  animal  charcoal  is  used  in  the  same  way. 

PHOSPHORUS. — A  non-metallic  element  or  metalloid,  although 
in  its  combining  relation  it  is  more  closely  connected  with  arsenic 
and  antimony  than  with  any  members  of  the  sulphur  group.  It 
is  found  ordinarily  in  two  states — the  ordinary  phosphorus  and 
the  red  variety.  Ordinary  phosphorus  is  an  almost  colorless  or 
faintly  yellow  solid  substance,  somewhat  resembling  wax,  and 
giving  off  a  disagreeable  odor.  It  fuses  at  111.5°  F.  into  a  color- 
less fluid.  Heated  in  the  air  to  about  140°  F.,  it  catches  fire  and 
burns  with  a  bright  white  flame.  It  dissolves  freely  in  benzol, 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  in  many  oils.  Red  phosphorus  is  an 
amorphous  powder  of  a  deep  red  color,  with  no  odor,  and  may 
be  heated  to  nearly  500°  F.  without  fusing.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
2.10.  It  does  not  take  fire  when  rubbed,  undergoes  no  change  on 
exposure  to  the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  is  far  less  inflam- 
mable than  ordinary  Phosphorus.  It  is  insoluble  in  solvents  of  the 
ordinary  Phosphorus,  and  is  not  poisonous.  Mulholland  made 
an  insulated  wire  compound  from  shellac  and  India-rubber  in 
solution,  combined  with  I  to  2  per  cent,  of  Phosphorus,  which  he 
cured  with  chloride  of  sulphur.  As  cold-cure  gums  are  of  little 
value  as  insulators,  his  invention  is  of  doubtful  value.  He  also 
made  a  prepartion  of  India-rubber,  resin  and  tallow,  and  shoddy, 
to  be  applied  in  a  fluid  state  where  gas  came  in  contact  with  the 
rubber,  adding  Phosphorus  after  his  solution  was  finished,  to  pre- 
vent decomposition  of  the  rubber.  Duvivier  also  treated  Gutta- 
percha  with  sulphide  of  phosphorus,  claiming  that  he  got  an  elas- 
tic result,  but  allowing  that  his  compound  was  damaged  by  acid 
vapors,  to  neutralize  which  action  he  mixed  carbonate  of  soda  with 
it.  An  anti-fouling  preparation  of  English  origin  was  also  made 
of  Gutta-percha,  turpentine,  and  a  little  Phosphorus. 

PIPE  CLAY. — A  peculiar  kind  of  clay  containing  neither  iron, 
sand,  nor  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  a  beautiful  white,  retaining  its 
whiteness  when  burnt.  It  belongs  to  the  group  of  clays.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  2  to  2.5.  It  was  used  by  Mayall  in  combination 
with  Gutta-percha,  India-rubber,  zinc,  shellac,  and  resin  for  insu- 


78  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

lating  tape,  and  by  Day  to  absorb  gases  during  vulcanization. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS. — This  is  prepared  from  gypsum  or  sul- 
phate of  lime.  Its  properties  of  hardening  when  made  into  a  paste 
with  water  are  well  known.  Its  chemical  properties  are  the  same 
as  burnt  gypsum.  It  is  used  sometimes  instead  of  lime  in  com- 
pounding and  also  for  making  trial  molds  for  rubber  work.  It  was 
used  in  old  fashioned  dry  heat  compounds  to  prevent  blistering. 
(See  Anhydrite.) 

PLUMBAGINE. — A  dark  colored  pigment  manufactured  in 
England  and  sold  to  rubber  manufacturers  for  the  production  of 
valves.  By  its  use  the  rubber  is  vulcanized  and  goods  made  which 
are  said  to  resist  successfully  the  action  of  cheap  lubricants.  One 
pound  of  Plumbagine  is  used  to  2  pounds  of  rubber. 

PLUMBAGO. — This  sometimes  is  called  Black  Lead,  though 
having  no  relation  to  lead ;  it  is  also  called  Graphite.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  2.1  to  2.2.  Its  color  is  black  and  shiny.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  carbon,  but  contains  more  or  less  alumina,  silica,  lime, 
iron,  etc.  varying  from  i  to  47  per  cent.,  but  not  chemically  com- 
bined. Black  Lead  is  a  perfect  conductor  of  electricity.  It  is 
more  incombustible  than  most  ingredients  used  in  rubber  com- 
pounding, and  is  capable  of  withstanding  great  heat.  It  is  used 
in  the  rubber  industry,  chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  what  are 
known  as  graphite  or  plumbago  packings.  It  is  a  wholly  inert 
substance,  safe  to  use  in  connection  with  any  compounds,  and  is 
not  affected  by  heat  or  acids,  alkalies,  or  corrosive  substances.  It 
is  useful  also  in  certain  polishing  compositions  made  with  India- 
rubber  as  a  base.  German  asbestos  cements  almost  all  contain  a 
good  proportion  of  finely  powdered  graphite. 

PORTLAND  CEMENT  is  obtained  by  burning  the  mud  found  at 
the  mouths  of  several  large  rivers  in  Europe  with  a  proportion  of 
clay  and  lime.  Its  composition  is  somewhat  complex,  containing: 
Lime  55  to  63  per  cent.,  silica  acid  23  to  26  per  cent.,  alumina  5  to 
9  per  cent.,  and  oxide  of  iron  2  to  6  per  cent.,  together  with  mag- 
nesia, potash,  soda,  sulphate  of  lime,  clay,  or  sand  in  various  small 
proportions,  according  to  the  mode  of  manufacture.  Its  value 
as  a  cement  depends  upon  the  interaction  of  the  lime  and  the  silicic 
acid.  In  compounding  it  would  have  no  chemical  effects  upon 
rubber,  but  might  of  itself  become  much  hardened  and  thus  cause 


CEMENT— PUMICE  STONE.  79 

mechanical  injury  to  goods  in  which  it  has  been  introduced.  As 
it  occurs  commercially,  it  is  a  gritty  powder  of  a  gray  brown  or 
yellow  brown  color.  The  gray  brown  makes  the  best  cement,  its 
only  use  as  far  as  known  in  rubber  is  where  it  is  mixed  with  tar 
oil  and  waste  rubber  to  joint  pipes  containing  fluids. 

POWDERED  COAL. — Coal  consists  chiefly  of  carbon,  and  is 
universally  regarded  as  being  of  vegetable  origin.  Various  coals 
differ  widely  in  their  composition  and  characters,  running  from 
the  softest  kinds  of  earths  to  compact  and  solid  bodies  like  Parrot 
coal,  which  is  so  compact  and  solid  that  it  has  been  made  into 
boxes,  inkstands,  and  other  articles  which  resemble  jet.  The  aver- 
age specimen  of  coal  analyses  is :  Carbon  82.6,  hydrogen  5.6,  oxy- 
gen 1 1 .8.  Some  curious  compounds  of  India-rubber  and  Coal  have 
been  formed.  One,  for  instance,  was  a  mixture  in  which  2  pounds 
of  waste  India-rubber  in  a  cheap  solvent  was  mixed  with  nearly 
a  ton  of  powdered  Coal,  in  which  was  a  certain  amount  of  clay  and 
peat,  the  use  being  for  an  artificial  fuel;  another  use  was  in  the 
production  of  hard  rubber.  Indeed,  it  is  probable  that  the  cheap- 
est compound  in  use  to-day  is  a  jet  black,  semi-hard  rubber  made 
almost  wholly  of  powdered  bituminous  Coal  in  which  is  incorpo- 
rated a  very  small  percentage  of  rubber.  Coal  that  is  to  be  used 
in  any  rubber  work  should  be  submitted  to  a  chemist  and  its  sul- 
phur and  other  compounds  carefully  determined  before  use. 

PUMICE  STONE. — A  light  porous  ashy  stone,  the  product  of 
volcanic  action,  its  structure  being  that  of  a  mass  of  porous  glass. 
Its  composition  is  a  mixture  of  silicates  of  aluminum,  magnesia, 
calcium,  iron,  potassium,  and  sodium,  varying  with  the  particular 
lava  whence  it  had  its  origin.  Its  action  on  India-rubber  will  be 
quite  inappreciable,  chemically  speaking,  but  its  mechanical  action 
will  be  that  of  a  sharp  cutting  powder.  Ground  fine,  it  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  erasive  rubber,  and  is  also  used  compounded 
with  the  rubber  in  the  manufacture  of  hones.  Recent  patents  call 
for  its  use  in  certain  semi-hard  compounds,  its  presence  being  said 
greatly  to  increase  the  toughness  of  the  compound.  Mixed  with 
lard  oil  to  a  thick  paste,  this  has  been  used  for  polishing  India- 
rubber. 

PUZZOLANA. — A  porous  lava  found  near  Naples,  used  chiefly, 
when  mixed  with  ordinary  lime,  forming  hydraulic  cement.  Com- 


8o  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

pounded  with  marine  glue,  it  is  used  as  a  varnish  for  preserving 
metallic  articles  from  corrosion. 

RED  CHALK. — Artificially  deposited  chalk  colored  by  any 
suitable  pigment— usually  one  of  the  red  oxides  of  iron.  (See 
Chalk.) 

RED  LEAD. — An  oxide  of  the  metal,  which  is  also  known  as 
Minium.  Prepared  from  pure  massicot  or  from  white  lead.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  8.6  to  9.1.  A  scarlet  crystaline  granular  pow- 
der, of  rather  strong  coloring  powers.  As  a  colorant  in  rubber 
work  it  would  be  unavailable,  since  the  sulphur  necessary  to  vul- 
canize would  render  it  more  or  less  black,  owing  to  the  formation 
of  sulphide  of  lead.  It  is  sometimes  used,  however,  in  place  of 
litharge.  It  is  also  used  in  "hot"  cements  of  Gutta-percha  and 
for  varnishes  such  as  those  made  of  India-rubber,  linseed  oil,  etc., 
for  covering  the  backs  of  mirrors.  (See  Minium,  Massicot,  and 
Orange  Mineral.) 

ROTTEN  STONE. — Usually  considered  to  be  the  residuum  of 
naturally  decomposed  impure  limestone,  and  varying  in  composi- 
tion with  its  sources.  That  from  Derbyshire,  England,  shows 
much  alumina;  other  sorts  have  more  silica.  The  name  is  some- 
times given  to  "tripoli"  which  is  a  species  of  infusorial  earth.  It 
can  have  no  particular  action  on  rubber,  as  it  is  very  inert,  but  is 
used  in  certain  packings,  and  was  also  used  by  Warne  in  insulated 
wire  compounds. 

SELENIUM. — A  non-metallic  element  or  metalloid  of  a  dark 
brown  color,  analagous  to  sulphur.  It  has  no  smell,  is  tasteless, 
and  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricty.  It  occurs  rarely  in  nature, 
being  found  chiefly  as  a  selenide  in  combination  with  lead,  silver, 
copper,  or  iron.  It  is  the  basis  of  a  process  for  vulcanizing  India- 
rubber. 

SILEX. — Pure  silica.     (See  Flint.) 

SILICA. — The  oxide  of  the  metal  silicon,  familiar  in  the  forms 
of  flint,  quartz,  etc.  Its  specific  gravity  is  2.6.  It  is  without  action 
on  India-rubber,  except  mechanically  speaking.  It  is  used  in 
Chapman's  vulcanite  enameling  solution,  made  of  Inida-rubber, 
sulphur,  and  Silica.  (See  Flint.) 

SILICATE  COTTON. — See  Mineral  Wool. 

SLAG  WOOL. — See  Mineral  Wool. 


SLAKED  LIME—SOAPSTONE.  81 

SLAKED  LIME. — Quick  lime  that  has  been  treated  with  water, 
and  allowed  to  absorb  it  from  the  air  and  crumbled  to  a  fine  pow- 
der. (See  Lime.) 

SLATE. — A  soft  easily  laminated  earthy  material,  chiefly  alu- 
minuous  in  composition,  and  allied  to  the  clays.  Finely  ground, 
it  makes  a  good  semi-hard  valve  of  a  blue  gray  shade.  It  has 
been  also  used  in  general  rubber  compounding. 

SOAPSTONE. — A  silicate  of  magnesia,  combined  with  more  or 
less  alumina  and  water.  It  is  really  a  massive  form  of  talc.  In 
color  it  is  white,  reddish,  white,  or  yellow,  is  soft  and  greasy  to 
the  touch,  is  easily  cut,  but  is  hard  to  break.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  2.26.  It  is  used  often  in  the  place  of  French  talc,  for  keeping 
rubber  surfaces  from  sticking  together  during  vulcanization,  and 
also  for  burying  dark  colored  goods  and  holding  them  in  shape 
while  they  are  being  cured.  Used  as  an  adulterant  for  rubber,  it 
makes  an  excellent  semi-hard  compound  for  valves.  It  is  also 
used  as  a  basis  compound  in  the  manufacture  of  insulated  wire. 
(See  Talc.) 

STARCH. — A  vegetable  substance  allied  closely  to  cellulose. 
It  occurs  in  irregular  lumps,  composed  of  granules  which  have  a 
definite  character,  according  to  the  variety  of  plant  they  were  taken 
from.  When  dry  its  specific  gravity  is  1.53.  Commercial  Starch 
contains  usually  about  18  per  cent,  of  water  and,  if  kept  in  a  damp 
place,  will  absorb  33  per  cent,  of  water.  It  was  much  used  for- 
merly on  solarized  work.  Torrefied  Starch  is  obtained  by  roasting 
the  common  form,  and  is  used  in  artificial  leather  compounds. 

STIBNITE. — That  ore  of  antimony  known  usually  as  black 
antimony.  (See  Kermes.) 

SUBLIMED  LEAD. — Used  in  the  rubber  manufacture,  it  acts 
both  as  a  filler  and  chemically.  Its  peculiar  velvety  fineness  makes 
it  mix  intimately  with  the  rubber,  and  gives  a  very  fine  finish, 
showing  no  shiny  crystals  on  the  surface.  The  oxide  of  lead  in 
the  Sublimed  Lead  will  also  bind  free  sulphur  in  the  rubber.  The 
amorphous  state  of  the  Sublimed  Lead  makes  the  action  of  the 
lead  oxide  in  this  much  more  effective  than  the  action  of  litharge, 
and  the  result  is  a  very  smooth  lively  jet  black  rubber. 

SUGAR  OF  LEAD. — See  Acetate  of  Lead. 

SULPHATE  OF  LEAD. — A  white  powder  of  the  specific  gravity 


82  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

of  6.2,  insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  soluble  in  caustic  alkalies. 
It  is  not  a  very  stable  compound.  In  Coole/s  formula  for  arti- 
ficial leather,  which  has  Gutta-percha  for  a  base,  it  is  used  in  con- 
nection with  dextrine,  magnesia,  and  cotton  dust. 

SULPHATE  OF  LIME. — Also  called  Gypsum.  A  common  min- 
eral occurring  under  various  forms  and  names  as  alabaster,  selen- 
ite,  and  gypsum  earth.  It  is  pure  white  in  color  and  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  2.33.  Plaster  of  paris  is  a  burnt  form  of  gypsum.  In 
the  ordinary  recovery  of  rubber  by  the  acid  process,  whiting  be- 
comes gypsum.  (See  Anhydrite.) 

SULPHATE  OF  ZINC. — Also  called  White  Vitriol.  It  occurs 
in  the  form  of  a  transparent  crystal  containing  about  44  per  cent, 
of  water  of  crystalization,  87  per  cent,  of  which  is  not  given  up 
short  of  a  red  heat.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  2.03. 

TALC  or  FRENCH  TALC  is  a  mineral  allied  to  mica.  It  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  silica  and  magnesia,  in  the  proportions  of  67  to 
73  of  silica,  30  to  35  of  magnesia,  and  2  to  6  of  water.  Its  colors 
are  silvery  white,  greenish  white,  and  green.  Talc  slate  is  more 
like  steatite  and  is  used  for  similar  purposes.  French  Talc  is  used 
very  largely  in  rubber  factories  in  all  lines  of  work  for  preventing 
surfaces  from  sticking  together,  during  either  manipulation  or 
vulcanization.  It  is  used  also  sometimes  for  dusting  molds  to  pre- 
vent the  gum  from  sticking  to  the  metal  and  is  used  largely  to 
bury  white  goods  and  keep  them  in  shape  during  vulcanization.  It 
is  used  sometimes  in  compounding,  but  any  great  amount  of  it 
produces  a  stony  effect.  It  makes,  however,  an  excellent  semi- 
hard  packing.  It  is  used  further  in  compounds  for  soft  polish- 
ing, with  India-rubber  as  a  binding  material. 

TALITE. — A  white  earthy  material  used  in  general  rubber 
compounding.  It  is  allied  to  diatomaceous  earth,  presumably,  and 
has  the  same  usage.  Its  analysis  shows:  Moisture  5.59,  silica 
83.9,  sesqui-oxide  of  iron  1.2,  alumina  2.8,  oxide  of  manganese 
trace,  potash  trace,  combined  water  and  organic  matter  (by  igni- 
tion) 6.47,  loss  and  undetermined  0.04 — total  100. 

TRIPOLI. — See  Rotten  Stone  and  Infusorial  Earth. 

WHEAT  FLOUR  is  used  in  making  matrices  for  rubber  stamp 
work,  and  sometimes  as  a  compounding  material  in  India-rubber, 
though  this  is  not  to  be  advised,  as  the  flour  is  apt  to  turn  sour. 


WHITING— WHITE  LEAD.  83 

A  large  and  important  use  for  it  has  been  in  the  dusting  of  black 
goods,  such  as  rubber  coats,  so  as  to  keep  them  from  sticking 
together,  should  they  accidentally  touch  during  dry  heat  of  vul- 
canization. Wheat  Flour  is  preferable  to  almost  anything  else, 
for  the  reason  that  it  washes  off  after  vulcanization,  without  leav- 
ing any  trace  in  color  or  stain.  It  is,  of  course,  used  on  the  goods 
known  as  "dull  finished." 

WHITING,  or  CHALK,  as  it  is  often  called,  is  carbonate  of 
lime.  It  is  a  white  earthy  material  of  the  specific  gravity  of 
2.7  to  2.9.  It  is  made  from  English  chalk,  which  is  crushed,  float- 
ed, and  run  through  a  filtering  process,  and  dried  in  cakes,  out  of 
which,  by  a  system  of  dry  grinding  and  bolting,  it  is  made  in 
varying  degrees  of  fineness.  Where  Whiting  is  kiln  dried  hastily, 
or  under  extreme  heat,  it  is  apt  to  become  calcined,  which  gives  it 
a  hard,  gritty  feeling.  Air  dried  whiting  is  considered  the  best. 
Whiting  is  in  reality  a  purified  form  of  carbonate  of  calcium,  of  a 
very  soft  or  flocculent  quality.  The  finest  grades  are  known  as 
"gilders'  "  and  "extra  gilders'."  It  is  used  more  generally  in  rub- 
ber compounding  than  any  other  material,  except  sulphur.  Used 
moderately,  it  increases  the  resiliency  of  rubber,  but  adds  to  the 
hardness.  It  does  not,  however,  produce  the  stony  effect  that 
many  ingredients  give.  It  is  also  the  basis  of  the  molds  used  in 
rubber  stamp  making;  paste  being  made  of  whiting,  wheat  flour, 
gule,  and  carbolic  acid.  Whiting  is  liable  to  absorb  considerable 
quantities  of  water  from  the  air.  It  is  customary  in  many  mills, 
therefore,  to  keep  it  in  large  bins  that  not  only  are  covered  but 
have  steam  pipes  in  the  lower  portions  to  drive  out  any  moisture 
from  the  material. 

WHITE  LEAD. — This  is  a  carbonate  and  is  a  heavy  white  pow- 
der. It  is  unstable  in  color,  however,  as  sulphur  compounds,  espe- 
cially in  the  gaseous  forms,  easily  attack  it  and  blacken  it  by  rea- 
son of  the  formation  of  sulphide  of  lead.  Its  specific  gravity  is 
6.46.  Sometimes  it  is  adulterated  with  lead  sulphate,  chalk,  car- 
bonate, or  sulphate  of  baryta,  or  pipe  clay.  The  simplest  test  for 
the  purity  of  White  Lead  is  to  heat  it  in  a  thin  glass  vessel  with 
some  very  dilute  pure  nitric  acid;  if  pure  it  will  dissolve  com- 
pletely. If  chalk  is  present  it  also  will  pass  into  the  solution,  in 
which  it  may  be  detected  by  the  addition  of  caustic  potash,  throw- 


84  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

ing  it  down  as  a  white  cloud.  The  best  carbonate  of  lead  is  made 
by  an  old  fashioned  process,  by  placing  metallic  lead  surrounded 
with  spent  tan  bark  in  stacks,  where  it  comes  in  contact  with  weak 
acetic  acid.  The  heat  of  the  bark  volatilizes  the  acid  and  oxidizes 
the  lead,  while  the  acetic  acid  changes  the  oxide  into  acetate  of 
lead,  and  this  in  turn  is  converted  into  carbonate  by  the  carbonic 
acid  given  off  by  the  heated  body.  This  process  of  corrosion 
requires  from  six  to  eight  weeks.  There  are  many  later  and  more 
rapid  processes;  for  instance,  take  either  litharge  or  acetate  of 
lead,  and  expose  them  to  a  current  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  etc. 
The  original  "triple  compound"  patented  by  Goodyear  consisted 
of  India-rubber,  sulphur,  and  White  Lead.  A  white  lead  known 
as  sublimed  lead  is  used  very  largely  in  the  rubber  manufacture. 
It  is  a  fine  white  amorphous  powder  and  imparts  a  decided  tough- 
ness to  rubber  compounds.  (See  Sublimed  Lead.) 

UNUSUAL  INGREDIENTS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

IT  is  not  strictly  accurate,  perhaps,  to  say  that  it  is  unusual  for 
fibers  to  be  incorporated  in  rubber  mixtures,  for  stocks  made 
from  unvulcanized  rubber  clippings  have  been  used  for  years. 
Inner  soles  for  rubber  footwear  and  mats  and  molded  articles 
have  long  been  made  of  stocks  of  this  kind,  the  fibers  being  cot- 
ton and  wool,  chiefly.  Where  wool  was  present  there  was  often- 
times danger  of  blistering  from  the  oil  in  the  fiber,  but  this  was 
easily  gotten  over  by  special  compounding.  In  addition  to  the 
fibers  already  noted,  silk,  flax,  jute  and  hemp — in  fact,  almost 
all  of  those  in  ordinary  use — have  been  utilized,  being  added  to 
the  compounds  to  give  toughness  to  them.  The  goods  in  which 
they  are  usually  put  are  packings,  artificial  leathers,  tire  treads, 
and  for  wearing  surfaces. 

A  fiber  that  has  attracted  considerable  attention  for  this 
work,  and  one  for  which  a  number  of  patents  have  been  granted, 
is  cocoanut  fiber,  which  is  recommended  for  packings.  Certain 
kinds  of  moss  have  also  been  used,  as  have  sponge  cuttings,  peat, 
and  wood  pulp.  This  last  named  material  has  been  used  both  in 
packings  and  in  insulated  wire  compounds.  It  is  also  the  basis 
of  a  curious  artificial  rubber  that  appeared  several  years  ago,  un- 
der the  name  of  Maltha,  but  is  not  to  be  confused  with  the  pro- 


UNUSUAL  INGREDIENTS.  85 

duct  that  has  become  almost  universally  known  by  that  uame. 

Sawdust  of  all  kinds  has  also  been  incorporated  in  rubber, 
and  was  formerly  used  in  making  sponge  rubber,  until  better  com- 
pounds were  discovered.  Those  who  use  vegetable  fibers  prefer 
them  unbleached  rather  than  bleached,  and  very  often  treat  them 
to  remove  resins  that  may  be  present.  A  few  of  the  many  other 
vegetable  substances  that  have  been  used  are  sugar  and  sugar 
charcoal  and  seaweed.  (See  Algin.) 

Animal  substances  are  also  valuable,  as  for  instance,  animal 
charcoal  (which  see),  whalebone,  which  is  called  for  in  some  of 
the  Woodite  patents,  fur,  tan-hair,  leather  fiber,  Currier's  skiv- 
ings,  which  are  used  in  artificial  leather,  the  white  of  eggs,  etc. 

Under  the  head  of  earthy  and  metallic  ingredients,  almost 
anything  can  be  used,  although  some  metals  have  a  bad  effect  on 
rubber,  copper  being  the  most  notable  of  these.  The  unusual 
earthy  matters  are  powdered  fossil  iron-stone,  Wisconsin  mine- 
ral, coke  ashes,  Stourbridge  clay,  powdered  granite,  salt,  pow- 
dered lithographic  stones,  powdered  oyster  shells,  powdered 
schist;  and  in  metals,  steel,  and  all  other  common  metal  borings, 
filings,  and  turnings.  These  latter  have  been  incorporated  in 
packings  as  a  rule.  One  packing  in  particular,  which  has  had  a 
world-wide  reputation,  was  heavily  compounded  with  brass  fil- 
ings. 

The  deodorization  of  rubber,  and  the  neutralization  either  of 
the  smell  of  the  rubber  or  its  solvent,  has  brought  out  also  a  curi- 
ous line  of  ingredients.  Musk,  for  example,  has  been  used  to  dis- 
guise the  earthy  odor  of  Gutta-percha.  Alcoholic  infusions  of 
sage-tea,  lavender,  and  verbena  have  been  used  in  fine  goods, 
while  in  powdered  form,  ginger  root,  birch,  orris  root,  sassafras, 
marshmallow  root,  sandal  wood,  and  other  sweetsmellino-  innr»~ 
dients  have  been  incorporated.  Tin  UiE  nf  llirTmTil  "li.i1.  .iKn  been 
mingled  with  copperas,  and  placed  in  dry  heaters,  while  a  more 
expensive  process  was  that  pursued  by  Hill,  who  passed  a  cur- 
rent of  hot  air  over  perfumes  and  into  the  heaters.  It  must  not 
be  imagined  that  the  ideas  expressed  in  the  foregoing  are  un- 
worthy of  the  consideration  of  those  who  make  ordinary  cheap 
mechanical  goods,  for  certain  of  these  ingredients  are  used  to-day 
in  mechanical  mixtures  to  overcome  the  odors  of  African  rub- 


86  FILLERS  IN  DRY  MIXING. 

bers.  Essential  oils  and  gums  are  also  used  for  the  same  pur- 
poses, the  descriptions  of  which  will  be  found  under  their  proper 
departments. 

Medical  science  has  also  added  its  list  of  ingredients  to  rub- 
ber compounding,  chiefly  in  the  line  of  adhesive  plasters,  where 
ingredients  like  dry  mustard,  menthol,  capsicum,  belladonna,  and 
a  great  variety  of  other  medicaments  are  incorporated  with  the 
rubber. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

I.    SUBSTITUTES  FOR  INDIA-RUBBER  AND  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

RUBBER  SUBSTITUTES,  as  a  rule,  are  made  from  oxidized  oils. 
Those  used  most  generally  are  made  from  linseed,  rapeseed,  cot- 
tonseed, mustard,  peanut,  or  corn  oils,  acted  on  either  by  chloride 
of  sulphur  or  by  sulphur  boiled  with  the  oil  at  a  high  temperature. 
Substitutes  have  been  known  nearly  fifty  years,  and  have  been 
made  the  subjects  of  many  patents,  but  only  within  the  last  ten 
or  fifteen  years  have  they  come  into  general  use.  French  manu- 
facturers have  long  exported  these  goods;  they  were  really  the 
first  to  produce  them  commercially.  The  fact  that  Europeans 
were  unable  at  first  to  get  the  results  with  reclaimed  rubber  that 
were  secured  in  the  United  States,  led  them  to  go  further  in  their 
experiments  with  oxidized  oils  and  to  exploit  their  uses  more 
thoroughly.  The  substitutes  on  the  market  to-day  are,  as  a  rule, 
white,  brown,  and  black.  They  are  slightly  heavier  than  pure 
India-rubber,  but  their  specific  gravity  is  so  near  that  of  rubber 
that  their  presence  cannot  be  detected  in  rubber  compounds  by 
specific  gravity  tests.  Substitutes  of  this  type  are  easily  analyzed 
by  the  expert  chemists,  and  the  results  of  such  analyses  are  of 
value  to  rubber  manufacturers.  The  table  on  the  next  page,  con- 
taining analyses  of  typical  sorts  of  substitutes,  is  adapted  from  Dr. 
Rob.  Henriques*. 

It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  rubber  substitutes  are 
of  no  value,  for,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  they  possess  certain  very  dis- 
tinct advantages  not  found  in  simple  mineral  adulterants  nor  pos- 
sessed by  any  of  the  bituminous  products  now  in  use.  Their 
value,  of  course,  is  where  they  cheapen  stock  without  seriously  in- 
juring its  durability  or  changing  its  texture.  Among  the  wiser 
of  the  manufacturers,  where  substitutes  are  compounded  with 
rubber  they  are  used  in  small  quantities,  sometimes  only  5  per 
cent,  being  added,  and  rarely  is  more  than  25  per  cent,  to  be  found 
in  a  good  compound. 

Many  substitutes,  made  from  sulphurized  drying  oils,  shorten 
the  life  of  goods  materially,  by  oxidizing  the  rubber.  Manu- 

*  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  1894,  page  47. 

87 


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Commercial  Products  : 
White  substitute  No.  i  .  . 
White  substitute  No.  2  .  . 
White  substitute  No.  3.  . 
Brown  substitute  No.  i  . 
Brown  substitute  No.  2  . 

AD  AM  ANT  A— EL  A  TERITE.  89 

facturers  have  learned,  however,  to  avoid  those  that  have  this 
fault,  and  are  becoming  more  and  more  expert  in  the  use^  of  these 
goods,  as  they  have  become  in  the  use  of  the  cheaper  grades  of 
African  rubber  and  reclaimed  rubber. 

The  list  following  has  been  made  quite  comprehensive,  not 
because  all  the  substitutes  described  are  deemed  valuable,  but 
rather  to  give  a  broad  view  of  the  subject.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
many  of  these  gums  are  far  out  of  the  line  of  sulphurized  oil  ex- 
periments. Resins,  glues,  asphalt,  cellulose,  seaweed,  bastard  rub- 
bers, animal  substances,  etc.,  have  all  been  called  upon,  and  some 
of  the  treatments  have  been  as  original  as  the  ingredients  are 
unusual.  To  the  end  that  the  perfect  substitute  may  be  found, 
and  with  the  fullest  appreciation  that  anything  which  suggests  new 
experiments  has  its  value  to  the  manufacturer,  many  that  other- 
wise would  be  ignored  are  given  here. 

ADAMANTA. — The  American  name  for  a  German  substitute 
for  India-rubber,  made  from  linseed  oil,  sulphur,  lime,  and  resin. 
It  is  a  thick,  black,  gummy  mass,  with  an  odor  similar  to  that 
of  most  of  the  sulphur  oil  substitutes,  and  showing  a  bright 
cleavage.  It  was  at  one  time  used  largely  in  France  and  Germany, 
and  introduced  to  some  extent  into  the  United  States.  Its  chief 
use  was  in  cheap  mechanical  rubber  goods,  and  for  insulation. 

ALGIN  GUM. — A  gluey,  leathery  substance,  manufactured 
from  seaweed.  It  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and 
glycerine,  and  combines  readily  with  alkaline  and  metallic  bases 
to  form  substances,  many  of  which  are  soluble.  Algin  can  be  used 
for  waterproofing  compounds,  as  it  combines  easily  with  rubber, 
shellac,  and  other  gums.  With  many  metallic  bases  it  forms  in- 
soluble compounds  as  tough  as  horn  or  as  pliable  as  Gutta-  percha. 
It  is  an  English  product. 

A.  R.  D.  GUM. — So  called  because  it  is  used  as  an  anti-dry-rot 
compound.  It  is  manufactured  of  112  parts  glue,  56  parts  resin,  10 
parts  boiled  linseed,  and  35  parts  water.  In  some  cases  it  has 
also  been  mixed  with  India-rubber  in  general  compounding.  Pat- 
ented by  J.  F.  Ebner,  London,  England. 

ARTIFICIAL  ELATERITE. — Made  from  liquid  bitumen  by  incor- 
porating with  it  vegetable  oils,  such  as  cottonseed  oil,  palm  oil, 
rapeseed  oil,  etc.  The  product  is  treated  with  aid  of  heat  and  pres- 


90  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RUBBER. 

sure,  with  chloride  of  sulphur,  saltpeter,  and  sulphur,  which  pro- 
duces an  oxidization  of  the  fatty  substances.  The  result  is  an  elas- 
tic rubber-like  or  leathery  mass,  which  is  soft,  spongy,  and  gluey. 
This  gum  is  said  to  be  far  more  elastic  than  the  best  samples  of 
mineral  rubber,  and  is  useful  for  waterproofing  and  insulation. 
Patented  by  W.  Brierly,  in  England. 

ARTIFICIAL  GUTTA-PERCHA. — A  French  compound  made  of 


50  parts  copal,  15  parts  sulphur,  30  parts  turpentine,  and  60  parts 
petroleum.  While  mixing  the  heat  reaches  100°  C. ;  it  is  then 
cooled  to  35°  C.  Then  there  is  added  a  solution  of  3  parts  case- 
ine,  in  weak  amonia,  and  a  little  methylene,  and  reheated  to  120° 
C.  It  is  then  boiled  with  a  15  or  20  per  cent,  solution  of  tannin, 
and  15  parts  ammonia.  After  several  hours'  boiling  it  is  washed 
and  cooled. 

BLACK  GERMAN  SUBSTITUTE. — Made  of  boiled  linseed  oil  and 
sulphur,  together  with  resinate  of  lime.  This  gum  is  similar  to 
Adamanta,  and  has  been  practically  driven  out  of  the  market  by 
lighter  substitutes. 

BLANDITE. — An  artificial  India-rubber  invented  by  Dr.  A.  L. 
Blandy,  of  London.  It  is  fairly  elastic,  stretching  to  about  twice 
its  length,  and  returning  readily.  It  is  very  pliable  and  does  not 
show  signs  of  cracking  when  bent.  It  is  vulcanized  like  ordinary 
rubber,  and  can  be  molded  into  any  form  desired.  Coated  on 
cloth,  it  strongly  resembles  leather.  It  is  waterproof,  and  is  used 
for  gas  tubing,  mats,  etc.  In  its  crude  form,  it  is  a  liquid  mass 
resembling  molasses.  Dr.  Blandy's  patent  describes  the  com- 
pound as  made  preferably  of  linseed  oil  which  has  been  reduced 
by  oxidation ;  then  10  per  cent,  of  bisulphide  of  carbon,  to  which 
has  been  added  10  per  cent,  of  chloride  of  sulphur,  is  mingled 
with  the  oil,  and  brought  by  gentle  heating  to  the  desired  con- 
sistency. Trinidad  asphalt,  cleansed  and  reduced  to  powder,  is 
combined  under  the  heat  in  the  proportion  of  3  parts  to  I  of  oil. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  fire  in  heating.  These  proportions 
are  gradually  brought,  by  heat  and  stirring,  to  a  liquid  or  thin 
state,  and  when  in  this  condition  it  must  be  poured  upon  a  wet, 
cold  surface,  and  thus  cast  into  sheets,  convenient  for  subsequent 
mixings. 

CARROL  GUM. — A  well-known  sulphur  oil  substitute  used  in 


CHRISTIA  GUM—ELASTEINE.  91 

the  United  States.  In  smell  it  has  all  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
sulphurized  oil  products.  It  is  produced  usually  in  granular  form, 
and  is  very  black. 

CHRISTIA  GUM. — An  English  substitute  for  Gutta-percha  or 
India-rubber,  used  as  a  surgical  dressing.  It  is  said  to  be  com- 
posed of  hemp  fibers,  so  treated  as  to  be  impervious  to  both  alcohol 
and  water.  Dieterich  analyzed  a  sample  of  the  product,  and  said 
that  the  fibers  were  sulphite  wood  pulp,  and  that  the  coating  was 
made  from  chrome  gelatine  treated  with  glycerine,  or  the  well 
known  compound  of  glue,  glycerine,  and  bichromate  of  potassium. 

CORKALINE  is  made  of  glue,  glycerine,  ground  cork,  and 
chromic  and  tannic  acids.  It  is  of  English  derivation  and  is  used 
as  a  substitute  in  mat  work. 

CORN  OIL  SUBSTITUTE. — A  sulphurized  oil  substitute  similar 
to  that  made  from  oxidized  linseed  or  rapeseed  oils,  manufactured 
from  corn  or  maize  oil.  It  is  the  cheapest  oil  substitute  that  has 
yet  been  put  on  the  market.  It  is  made  in  two  colors,  brown  and 
straw  color,  and  is  used  in  large  quantities  in  mechanical  goods, 
and  in  proofing.  A  good  example  of  this  type  of  substitute  is 
that  known  on  the  market  as  "Kommoid." 

DANKWERTH'S  RUSSIAN  SUBSTITUTE. — This  is  said  to  be  a 
perfect  substitute  for  both  Gutta-percha  and  India-rubber,  and  is 
used  for  covering  telegraph  cables.  Hisk  temperatures  do  not 
affect  it.  It  is  made  of  I  part  by  weight  IPthe  mixture  of  equal 
parts  of  wood  tar,  oil,  and  coal  tar  oil,  with  2  parts  of  hemp  oil 
heated  until  the  mass  is  of  the  right  consistency.  Then  i-^  part 
by  weight  of  boiled  linseed  oil  is  added.  To  this  is  added  a  little 
ozocerite  and  some  spermaceti.  It  is  then  heated  again,  and  finally 
a  little  sulphur  is  added.  , 

ELASTEINE. — An  elastic  substance  produced  through  the 
treatment  of  certain  resins.  Solid  and  semi-solid  copal  resins  are 
treated  with  oleic  acid  (found  in  stearine  works),  which  entirely 
dissolves  them.  The  product  of  the  solution  is  soluble  in  spirits 
of  turpentine  and  in  oil.  This  solution  of  gums  in  oleic  acid  gives 
an  opportunity  to  produce  materials  that  have  sometimes  the  elas- 
ticity and  the  consistency  of  India-rubber.  The  inventor  advises 
their  use  in  insulating  wire  and  in  various  kinds  of  proofing.  It 
is  of  French  origin,  and  patented  by  M.  Louis  Riviere. 


92  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RUBBER. 

ELASTIC  GLUE. — A  mixture  of  dry  glue  and  glycerine  in  equal 
parts,  by  weight.  As  little  water  should  be  used  as  possible  in  its 
manufacture.  It  is  used  for  elastic  figures,  galvano-plastic  molds, 
etc.  It  is  not  waterproof,  nor  will  it  stand  a  high  degree  of  heat. 

EUPHORBIA  RUBBER. — J.  G.  Boles  reduced  euphorbia  gum  to 
a  fine  powder  and,  after  drying  carefully  at  a  low  temperature,  put 
it  in  solution  and  finally  hardened  it  by  mixing  it  with  earthy  mat- 
ters and  shellac.  The  same  gum  before  that  he  mixed  with  a 
preparation  of  rubber  and  cured  it,  forming  a  kind  of  vulcanite. 

FRENCH  GUTTA-PERCHA. — This  gum  is  made  by  boiling  the 
outer  bark  of  the  birch  tree  in  water.  The  result  is  a  fluid,  which 
is  very  black,  and  which  becomes  compact  and  solid  on  cooling. 
It  has  been  claimed  that  it  possesses  all  of  the  good  properties  of 
Gutta-percha,  and  that  in  addition  it  does  not  oxidize  when  ex- 
posed to  the  air.  Its  application  for  industrial  purposes  has  been 
patented. 

•  FENTON'S   ARTIFICIAL   INDIA-RUBBER. — Manufactured   from 

linseed  or  similar  oils,  mixed  with  tar,  pitch,  or  other  forms  of 
pyroligneous  acid,  the  mixture  being  placed  in  a  bath  of  diluted 
nitric  acid,  and  allowed  to  remain  for  maceration  until,  by  the 
action  of  the  bath  upon  the  compound,  the  whole  is  coagulated 
into  a  tough,  elastic  magna.  The  black  "Fenton"  contains  as  a 
coloring  matter  a  sma^  quantity  of  plumbago  or  black  carbonate 
of  iron.  The  gum  iipatented  by  Ferrar  Fenton,  London,  Eng- 
land. In  his  specification  he  modifies  it  by  taking  the  artificial 
gum  described,  and  placing  it  in  a  bath  composed  of  a  solution  of 
sugar  of  lead,  oxide  of  zinc,  saltpeter,  or  some  other  form  of 
nitrate,  and,  if  high  flexibility  is  desired,  adds  5  to  10  per  cent,  to 
copal  gum  and  nitric  acid  diluted  with  water.  These  solutions  are 
used  one  at  a  time,  the  proportion  being  5  per  cent,  of  sugar  of 
lead,  or,  for  greater  hardness,  5  to  J\  per  cent,  of  saltpeter  to  the 
weight  of  the  magma.  Before  vulcanizing,  the  substances  are 
washed  in  an  alkaline  solution  to  remove  acid.  Fenton  rubber  is 
said  to  have  been  subjected  to  320°  F.  for  fifteen  minutes,  the 
only  result  being  to  increase  its  elasticity. 

GRAPE  RUBBER. — A  high  grade  of  artificial  rubber,  produced 
from  the  skins  and  seeds  of  grapes  from  which  wine  has  been 
extracted  by  pressure.  Small  samples  manufactured  in  the  labora- 


FIBRINE—KERITE.  93 

tory  are  said  to  be  almost  identical  with  pure  rubber.  It  has  been 
impossible  so  far  to  make  the  material  on  a  large  scale  economi- 
cally and,  therefore,  none  of  the  gum  is  on  the  market. 

GUM  FIBRINE  is  made  of  paper  rags,  treated  with  liquid  car- 
bonic acid,  mixed  with  resin  and  gum  benzoin  and  castor  oil,  dis- 
solved in  methylated  alcohol.  It  is  an  English  compound. 

GUTTALINE. — A  substitute  for  India-rubber  and  Gutta-percha, 
manufactured  as  follows :  To  Manila  gum  tempered  with  benzine 
is  added  5  per  cent,  of  Auvergne  bitumen,  also  mixed  with  ben- 
zine. Then  add  5  per  cent,  of  resin  oil,  and  allow  48  to  86  hours 
to  pass  between  treatments.  The  product  obtained  is  similar  to 
India-rubber.  If  it  is  too  fluid,  the  addition  of  4  per  cent,  of  sul- 
phur dissolved  in  bisulphide  of  carbon  will  act  as  a  remedy. 

INSULITE. — A  preparation  made  of  wood  or  vegetable  fiber, 
finely  ground  and  dessicated,  and  saturated  with  a  mixture  con- 
sisting of  melted  asphalt,  incorporated  with  substances  of  the  resin 
type,  with  or  without  substances  of  the  paraffine  or  anthracine 
types.  The  products  resulting  are  used  as  substitutes  for  India- 
rubber,  particularly  in  insulation.  Patented  by  Alfred  H.  Huth, 
London. 

KELGUM. — A  linseed  oil  preparation  manufactured  in  the 
following  way:  First,  boiling  linseed  oil  in  a  nitric  acid  bath 
until  it  reaches  a  gum-like  condition;  second,  subjecting  the  gum 
to  a  bath  for  the  removal  of  the  acid;  third,  cutting  the  gum  in 
a  solvent  bath;  fourth,  disintegrating  the  gum  with  the  solvent; 
fifth,  grinding  the  disintegrated  mass ;  sixth,  boiling  the  material ; 
seventh,  subjecting  the  same  to  another  boiling,  and  adding  a 
drier.  Used  in  proofing  compounds.  Invented  by  Henry  Kellog, 
United  States. 

KERITE. — A  compound  of  vegetable  oils,  coal  tar,  bitumen, 
and  sulphur,  to  which  is  added  sometimes  a  little  camphor  and 
various  waxes.  Occasionally  sulphide  of  antimony  is  used  in  place 
of  sulphur.  Vegetable  astringents,  such  as  tannin,  the  extract  of 
oak  bark,  etc.,  are  also  used  in  small  quantities  to  impart  tough- 
ness. Kerite  is  the  invention  of  Austin  G.  Day,  and  has  been  used 
largely  for  the  manufacture  of  a  covering  for  insulated  wire. 

KOMMOID. — See  Corn  Oil  Substitute. 

LINOXIN. — An  insoluble  oxy-compound  produced  by  the  oxi- 


94  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RUBBER. 

dation  of  certain  drying  oils  boiled  in  acetone  or  acetic  acid,  from 
which  is  produced  an  elastic  mass  similar  to  India-rubber.  Of 
French  origin. 

LUGO  RUBBER. — An  artificial  oxidized  oil  substitute  that  orig- 
inated with  a  German  chemist,  Dr.  Lugo,  who  introduced  it  into 
the  United  States,  where  it  once  had  a  large  sale.  It  was  black, 
of  about  the  same  specific  gravity  as  India-rubber,  and  made,  in 
connection  with  rubber,  excellent  mold  work.  It  is  not  now  on 
the  market. 

MAPONITE. — A  substitute  for  India-rubber  and  Gutta-percha, 
claimed  to  be  capable  of  use  in  the  manufacture  of  golf  balls, 
tobacco  pouches,  etc.  It  is  said  to  be  vulcanizable  at  260°  F.  An 
English  patent  has  been  applied  for,  the  inventor  being  F.  E.  Mac- 
Mahon. 

NIGRUM  ELASTICUM. — A  sulphurized  oil  substance  appa- 
rently made  from  linseed  oil.  Very  dark  colored  and  quite  hard. 
Of  English  origin. 

NOVELTY  RUBBER. — An  English  substitute  invented  by  David 
Lang.  It  is  made  red  and  drab  in  color.  It  comes  in  small  slabs 
about  1 8  inches  square  and  2  inches  thick,  weighing  about  7 
pounds.  It  is  said  to  be  easily  mixed  with  ordinary  rubber,  vul- 
canized in  the  usual  way,  the  price  being  about  the  same  as  for 
reclaimed  rubber. 

OXOLIN. — An  English  invention  patented  by  Charles  J. 
Grist,  an  electrical  engineer,  and  identical  with  "Perchoid"  in  the 
United  States.  This  gum  is  used  for  waterproof  sheeting,  print- 
ers' blankets,  packings,  etc.  It  is  made  of  a  solution  of  partially 
oxidized  oil  by  adding  litharge  and  heating  to  over  400°  F. 
Jute,  or  other  fibers,  is  then  dipped  in  the  oil,  the  surplus  oil  is 
removed  in  a  hydro-extractor,  and  the  oil  remaining  on  the  fibers 
is  oxidized  by  a  current  of  air.  These  operations  are  repeated 
twice.  The  material  is  then  ground  with  sulphur  and  coloring 
matters,  and  treated  like  India-rubber. 

PARKESINE. — Made  from  a  compound  of  linseed  oil  and  py- 
roxyline,  and  used  in  the  manufacture  of  small  articles  that  are 
sometimes  made  of  hard  rubber.  A  Parkesine  compound  for 
molding,  proofing,  etc.,  is  as  follows:  To  500  pounds  water  add 
50  pounds  sulphuric  acid,  and  steep  in  it  as  much  cotton,  or  rags, 


PARKESINE—PURCELLITE.  95 

or  jute,  or  linen  as  the  liquor  will  moisten,  for  3  or  4  hours.  Take 
out,  drain,  and  expose  the  mass  to  steam  heat  of  about  280°  F., 
for  an  hour,  if  cotton  or  jute  fiber  has  been  used,  and  3  hours  if 
flax.  Neutralize  the  acid  pulp  with  a  bath  of  water  and  soda, 
using  4  pounds  of  carbonate  of  soda  to  every  200  pounds  of  rags. 
Wash  and  press,  pass  through  a  coarse  sieve  of  12  meshes  per  inch, 
and  dry.  Grind  the  granulated  material  and  sift  it  through  a  sieve 
of  1 20  meshes  to  the  inch.  The  resulting  powder  may  be  mixed, 
in  all  proportions  up  to  equal  parts,  with  fresh  rubber.  Com- 
pounding 25  to  50  parts  dry  Parkesine,  with  50  parts  alcoholic 
solvent.  A  proofing  compound  is:  I  pound  paraffine,  linseed  oil, 
or  other  drying  oil ;  4  to  8  ounces  Parkesine. 

PERCHOID. — See  Oxolin. 

PEROXIDE  SUBSTITUTES. — Peroxide  of  lead  having  been  rec- 
ommended as  a  better  drier  than  other  oxides  used  in  connection 
with  all  compounds,  the  following  formulas  are  given :  25  parts  of 
walnut  oil,  62  parts  linseed  oil,  5.5  parts  peroxide  of  lead,  7.5  parts 
sulphur.  One  of  greater  toughness  is  composed  of  25  parts  wal- 
nut oil,  56  parts  linseed  oil,  5  parts  peroxide  of  lead,  6  parts  sul- 
phur, 6  parts  gum  juniper.  [Prof.  W.  Lascelles-Scott.] 

PICKEUM  SUBSTITUTE. — This  is  made  by  the  following  treat- 
ment of  Pickeum  gum : 

A. 

Boiled  linseed  oil 160  pounds. 

Vaseline 20  pounds. 

Bastard  gum  (or  Pickeum  gum)  from  Central  America, 

cut  fine 40  pounds. 

Stir  and  heat  to  250°  to  300°  F.,  until  the  gum  is  dissolved. 
Then  cool  to  100°  F.,  and  strain. 

B. 

(  Solution  as  above 5  gallons. 

Mixture  of    •<  Protochloride  of  sulphur 9  pounds. 

(  Bisulphide  of  carbon 9  pounds. 

After  the  chemical  action  takes  place,  the  mass  is  granulated 
and  the  grains  are  washed  and  stored  for  use,  or  the  material  may 
be  masticated  in  a  rubber  mill  and  run  into  sheets  for  use. 

PURCELLITE. — The  invention  of  Dr.  C.  Purcell  Taylor,  of 
England.  An  insulating  substance  somewhat  similar  to  Gutta- 


96  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RUBBER. 

percha,  but  costing  much  less.  It  is  said  to  be  very  tough  and 
elastic,  may  be  made  of  any  color,  and  is  either  flexible  or  rigid. 
The  specific  gravity  of  the  material  is  1.2.  It  can  be  molded  or 
vulcanized  like  India-rubber.  Its  insulation  resistance  is  equal 
to  that  of  Gutta-percha.  It  is  unaffected  by  atmosphere,  by  alka- 
line or  acid  liquids,  freezing  mixtures  and  the  like. 

RESINOLINES. — Substances  so  called  by  Eugene  Cadoret,  of 
Paris,  who  obtains  them  by  saponifying  various  oils  by  the  use 
of  a  metallic  carbonate,  using  by  preference  carbonate  of  lead, 
then  decomposing  by  nitric  acid,  decanting,  and  saturating  with 
an  alkali.  The  soap  thus  formed  is  treated  with  acid  to  form  a 
resinoid  body,  purified  by  dissolving  in  alcohol,  and  evaporating 
the  solution.  Resinolines  thus  formed  are  very  similar  to  natural 
resins.  They  are  either  semi-fluid,  pasty,  or  solid.  When  solid, 
they  are  remarkable  for  their  flexibility. 

ROSALINE. — A  vegetable  product  said  to  contain  about  the 
same  chemical  elements  as  India-rubber,  and  of  about  the  same 
specific  gravity.  Manufactured  in  United  States,  France,  and 
England.  A  strong  point  is  made  by  the  manufacturers  that  after 
vulcanization  no  chemist  is  able  to  detect  that  there  is  anything 
but  pure  rubber  in  a  mixture  containing  25  per  cent,  of  Rosaline 
and  75  per  cent,  of  India-rubber.  In  vulcanizing,  it  requires  about 
one-third  more  time  to  bring  about  the  usual  result. 

RUBERINE. — An  American  rubber-like  solution  used  as  an 
insulating  paint,  and  also  as  a  proofing  mixture,  and  partaking  of 
many  of  the  qualities  of  ruberoid.  It  is  also  manufactured  in 
Germany. 

RUBEROID. — An  American  substitute  for  India-rubber  that 
has  the  physical  appearance  of  a  high  grade  of  black  oil  substi- 
tute. In  use,  however,  it  differs  from  many  of  them,  for  the  rea- 
son that  it  has  been  found  useful  in  vulcanite  compounds,  while 
at  the  same  time  it  may  be  used  in  ordinary  soft  rubber  work. 

RUBBERITE. — An  artificial  rubber  of  the  same  specific  gravity 
as  fine  Para.  In  color,  elasticity,  capability  for  vulcanization,  and 
durability,  it  is  said  to  resemble  the  higher  grades  of  rubber.  It 
is  the  invention  of  H.  C.  B.  Graves,  London,  and  is  made  up  as 

follows : 

Trinidad  asphalt 47  to  80  per  cent. 

Oxidized  oil 20  to  30  per  cent. 


RUBBERAID—TEXTILOID.  97 

Vaseline 5  per  cent. 

Sulphur. . .  • 15  per  cent. 

Chloride  of  sulphur 3  per  cent. 

RUBBERAID. — An  amber  colored  substitute  manufactured 
from  cottonseed  oil  by  a  secret  process,  which  removes  what  the 
inventor  calls  the  grease,  leaving  an  elastic  semi-solid  which  has 
been  used  quite  largely  in  compounding. 

RUSSIAN  SUBSTITUTE. — Manufactured  from  the  skins  of  rab- 
bits and  other  small  animals,  or  the  waste  therefrom,  digested  in 
crude  glycerine,  and  a  little  water.  The  formula  is  3  parts  by 
weight  of  the  cleansed  substance  melted  in  water,  with  3  parts  by 
weight  of  crude  glycerine,  to  which  is  added  ^  part  by  weight  of  a 
concentrated  solution  of  potassium  chromate.  The  resultant  mass 
is  flexible.  To  make  it  harder,  a  little  less  glycerine  and  more 
chromate  of  potash  are  required.  To  withstand  acids,  30  per 
cent,  of  gum  lac  dissolved  in  alcohol  is  added.  For  waterproofing 
fabrics,  J  part  by  weight  of  oxgall  is  added,  with  enough  salt 
water  to  give  it  the  consistency  of  oil. 

SOAP  SUBSTITUTES. — These  have  been  exploited  and  explain- 
ed more  thoroughly  by  Prof.  W.  Lascelles- Scott  than  by  any- 
body else.  The  typical  formulas  that  he  gives  are  as  follows:  28 
parts  of  aluminum  soap,  60  parts  of  linseed  oil,  8  parts  of  acid  free 
sulphur,  4  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine.  Another,  to  use  in  connec- 
tion with  reclaimed  rubber,  is  15  parts  of  aluminum  soap,  25  parts 
of  devulcanized  rubber,  60  parts  fresh  rubber,  benzine  quantum 
suMcit.  Another  still,  in  which  a  low  grade  pseudo  gutta  is  used, 
is  15  parts  aluminum  soap,  25  parts  Almadina  gum,  5  parts  raw 
rubber,  6  parts  sulphur,  and  4  parts  oleum  succini. 

TEXTILOID. — A  mixture  of  a  resinoline  [as  described  by  Cad- 
oret  under  that  heading]  with  natural  resins,  cellulose,  nitric  cellu- 
lose, or  organic  substances  of  animal  origin.  The  resultant  mate- 
rial may  be  transparent,  white,  or  colored.  It  is  practically  unin- 
flammable, has  no  smell,  is  very  elastic,  and,  if  submitted  to  heat, 
softens,  and  can  be  easily  drawn  out  into  fine  threads.  It  can  be 
used  for  waterproofing  and  in  various  other  ways  is  a  good  sub- 
stitute for  India-rubber.  It  is  flexible  and  elastic.  Textiloid  is 
made  of  4  parts  resinoline,  2  parts  nitric  cellulose,  and  i  part  cam- 
phor dissolved  in  alcohol  at  90°  F.  The  result  thus  formed  may 
be  made  in  colors  by  the  addition  of  metallic  oxides. 


98  SUBSTITUTES  FOR  RUBBER. 

TONG  OIL  SUBSTITUTES. — Manufactured  from  the  Chinese 
oil  known  as  tong  oil,  or  wood  oil.  The  oil  is  heated  without  any 
foreign  matter  being  added  to  it,  at  a  temperature  of  250°  C., 
when  it  becomes  solidified.  It  is  then  pulverized,  and  impregnated 
with  petroleum,  which  swells  it,  and  renders  it  more  easily 
worked.  Patented  by  Dr.  Charles  Repin,  Paris. 

TURPENTINE  RUBBER. — Manufactured  by  passing  spirits  of 
turpentine  through  a  heated  tube  so  as  to  vaporize  it,  and  mixing 
the  vapor  with  hydrochloric  or  other  acid,  so  as  condense  and 
solidify  all  of  the  vapor.  Patented  by  A.  F.  St.  George,  England. 

TREMENOL. — A  German  invention  that  has  reference  to  the 
production  of  sulphonic  acids,  sulphones,  oils,  resin  oils,  mineral 
waxes,  etc.  Results  from  a  treatment  of  mineral  matter  with  fum- 
ing sulphuric  acids  at  ordinary  temperatures,  or  with  concentra- 
ted sulphuric  acid  at  120°  C.  The  invention  further  calls  for  the 
treating  similarly  of  the  bodies  obtained  from  the  oil  in  their  pre- 
cipitation by  means  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  products  are  then 
washed  in  brine  and  water.  The  inventors  precipitate  glue  and 
gelatine  from  a  slightly  acid  solution,  as  elastic  rubber-like  sub- 
stances that  can  be  drawn  into  threads  with  perfect  ease. 

VOLTIT. — The  base  of  this  is  glue  or  gelatine  prepared  from 
scraps  of  kid  skins,  which  are  treated  until  they  reach  a  gelatinous 
mass,  which  is  filtered  and  mixed  with  oleic  acid,  such  as  is  used 
in  candle  factories,  the  proportion  being  80  parts  of  oleic  acid  to 
20  parts  of  the  gelatine.  The  mixture  is  boiled  for  •£  hour,  and 
then  ii  parts  of  caustic  potash  solution  (in  50  parts  of  water)  is 
added.  The  boiling  is  then  continued  for  an  hour,  and  a  special 
mass  is  formed  to  which  is  added  resin  oil,  oxidized  linseed  oil, 
and  paraffine.  The  whole  mixture  is  then  boiled  4  to  5  hours. 
Also  spelled  Voltite.  It  is  of  French  origin. 

VOLENITE. — A  substitute  for  India-rubber  and  Gutta-percha 
invented  by  Frederick  Lamplough,  United  States.  The  compound 
is  said  to  be  a  mixture  of  resins,  or  resin  oil  conveyed  into  a  mass 
of  fibrous  material  by  a  suitable  non-oxidizable  oil.  This  latter 
oil  is  used  simply  as  a  vehicle  to  carry  the  resin  to  its  place,  the 
process  being  completed  by  the  distillation  of  the  non-oxidizable 
oil,  and  the  oxidizing  of  the  rest  of  the  mass.  The  oil  used  is 
preferably  a  fish  oil,  which  is  refined  carefully  before  use.  After 


HARD  RUBBER  SUBSTITUTES.  99 

saturation  and  treatment  the  vegetable  fiber  is  changed  into  a 
homogeneous  mass  which  has  many  of  the  characteristics  of  vul- 
canite. A  formula  that  is  said  to  have  worked  well  is  10  parts  by 
weight  of  fiber,  5  parts  resin,  4  parts  resin  oil,  2  parts  fish  oil, 
treated  at  a  temperature  of  130°  C,  for  4^  hours. 

WATERPROOF  GLUE. — A  substitute  for  canvas  proofing  made 
as  follows :  Dissolve  16  ounces  of  glue  in  3  pints  of  skim  milk,  and 
to  increase  its  strength  add  a  little  powdered  lime. 

WINTHROP  GUM. — Another  name  for  Rubberaid. 

II.     SUBSTITUTES  FOR  HARD  RUBBER  AND  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

HARD  RUBBER  in  its  best  estate  is  so  valuable  and  perfect  a 
product  that  it  would  always  have  the  preference  were  it  not  for 
its  unavoidable  high  cost.  Because  of  this  cost  there  are  many 
substitutes  for  it  that  counterfeit  it  in  texture,  color,  and  quality, 
but  are  never  quite  its  equal  in  all  these  points  of  excellence. 
These  substitutes  are  made  of  cellulose,  gums,  and  animal,  vege- 
table, and  earthy  matters,  having  a  variety  of  distinctive  names 
and  varied  uses.  To  the  popular  mind,  if  they  look  like  ebonite, 
they  are  hard  rubber.  In  the  same  way,  Gutta-percha  is  often 
confounded  with  hard  rubber,  which  it  resembles  under  many 
conditions.  The  following  list  covers  not  only  certain  widely- 
known  compounds  of  hard  rubber  and  Gutta-percha,  but  a  num- 
ber of  substitutes  for  them  now  put  to  many  uses,  the  chief  of 
which,  perhaps,  is  insulation: 

ALEXITE. — An  American  insulating  material  which  can  be 
molded  in  any  shape,  is  waterproof,  fireproof,  and  acid  proof,  and 
can  be  produced  in  any  color.  In  texture  and  general  appearance 
it  resembles  vulcanite. 

AMBROIN. — A  German  substitute  for  hard  rubber,  consisting 
of  fiber,  silica,  and  resin  compressed  to  a  mass.  Its  color  varies 
from  light  brown  to  green  or  black.  Nitric  and  acetic  acids  do 
not  effect  it,  and  even  aqua  regia  does  not  injure  it.  Under  a 
moderate  heat  it  softens  slightly  and  can  be  worked,  like  vulcanite, 
in  a  mold.  It  also  takes  a  bright  finish  from  the  buffing  wheel. 

ARMALAC. — See  Insulac. 

ARTIFICIAL  WHALEBONE. — A  well-known  product  made  as 
follows:  India-rubber  20  parts,  sulphur  5  parts,  shellac  4  parts, 


TOO       HARD  RUBBER  SUBSTITUTES. 

magnesia  4  parts,  and  gold  brimstone  5  parts.    Vulcanized  some- 
what the  same  as  hard  rubber. 

BALENITE,  as  the  name  signifies,  is  intended  as  a  substitute 
for  whalebone.  It  is  quite  elastic;  in  other  words,  it  is  neither 
hard  nor  soft,  but  may  be  characterized  as  semi-hard.  A  well- 
known  compound  for  this  is  India-rubber  100  parts,  shellac  20 
parts,  burned  magnesia,  20  parts,  sulphur  25  parts,  and  orpiment 
20  parts.  (Hoffer.) 

BITITE. — An  English  insulating  material  which  is  said  to  be 
bitumen  refined  to  absolute  purity  and  vulcanized.  It  is  used  on 
cables,  in  underground  work,  for  low  pressure  resistance,  and  in 
rare  instances  for  high  pressure. 

BROOKSITE. — A  compound  of  resin  and  heavy  resin  oils  for 
insulating  purposes. 

CAOUTCHOUC  ALUTA. — A  composition  used  as  a  substitute 
for  hard  rubber,  made  of  leather  scraps  boiled  in  water,  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  oxalic  acid  to  dissolve  them,  and  a  portion 
of  glue.  To  this  are  added  resin,  pitch,  beeswax,  and  copal  gum, 
dissolved  in  oil.  India-rubber  boiled  in  linseed  oil  is  then  added 
and  a  powder  formed  of  plaster  of  paris,  and  a  coloring  matter  is 
stirred  into  the  composition  to  thicken  and  stiffen  it. 

CHATTERTON'S  COMPOUND. — A  widely-known  compound 
sold  the  world  over  for  connections  for  joint  sheets  and  for  unit- 
ing Gutta-percha  parts,  and  also  used  for  cementing  Gutta-percha 
to  wood.  It  softens  readily  at  100°  F.,  and  becomes  firm  again 
when  cold.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  1.02.  The  best  compound 
is  i  part  by  weight  of  Stockholm  tar,  I  part  resin,  and  3  parts 
cleansed  Gutta-percha,  melted  and  mixed. 

CORALITE. — A  name  for  vulcanite  which  is  colored  to  imitate 
coral. 

CORNITE. — A  specially  hard  vulcanite  or  hard  rubber,  so 
named  from  the  Latin  cornu  (a  horn). 

DIATITE. — A  combination  of  diatomaceous  earth,  and  shellac, 
made  under  very  heavy  pressure.  It  may  be  made  of  any  color, 
and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  hard  rubber. 

ELECTROSE. — A  substitute  for  hard  rubber  for  which  the  fol- 
lowing advantages  are  claimed:  It  will  not  tarnish  metal,  as  no 
sulphur  is  used  in  its  vulcanization ;  it  is  cheaper  than  hard  rub- 


ELECTROSE—ISOLATINE.  101 

ber ;  it  possesses  high  insulation  properties ;  it  can  be  melted  rea- 
dily into  any  shape,  or  made  of  any  color;  it  does  not  fade;  it 
possesses  great  strength,  and  takes  a  high  polish;  changes  of 
temperature  do  not  affect  it;  and  it  withstands  the  weaker  acids 
and  alkalies. 

ESBENITE. — Made  of  pure  cellulose,  chemically  incorporated 
with  mica  in  the  form  of  fine  powder,  with  the  addition  of  mag- 
nesia and  silicate,  thus  forming  strong  and  close  grained  artificial 
mica.  It  is  flexible,  and  can  be  molded  into  any  shape.  Esbenite 
is  waterproof,  does  not  burn  readily,  and  is  thoroughly  airproof. 
Manufactured  in  England. 

FIBRONE. — A  substitute  for  hard  rubber  which  is  a  good  non- 
conductor, waterproof,  and  can  be  handled  in  a  lathe  like  vulcan- 
ite. It  is  said  to  be  durable,  does  not  contract  or  expand,  and  is 
made  in  all  colors.  It  is  used  for  thumbscrews,  pushbuttons,  etc. 
Plasticon  is  similar  to  Fibrone,  but  heavier  and  of  a  more  stony 
nature,  and  probably  made  of  the  same  material. 

HYALINE. — Made  of  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  gun  cotton 
and  a  variety  of  resins.  The  gun  cotton  is  dissolved  in  ether  and 
the  resins  in  solution  are  added,  the  result  being  a  thick,  gelatin- 
ous mass.  When  allowed  to  dry,  this  mass  soon  hardens  and 
forms  a  horny,  incombustible  material.  Invented  by  Frederick 
Eckstein,  Vienna. 

INSULLAC. — A  spirit  copal  resin  varnish,  with  the  acids  of 
the  resins  neutralized  as  much  as  possible,  to  prevent  the  resin 
acids  from  attacking  the  copper  wire.  It  is  a  transparent  elastic 
material,  and  is  superior  to  shellac.  Armalac  is  made  of  black 
paraffine  wax,  in  solution  in  petroleum.  It  remains  permanently 
plastic  under  heat,  although  it  dries  quickly  and  thoroughly. 
Manufactured  in  the  United  States. 

INSOLACIT. — An  insulating  material  produced  either  as  a 
liquid,  semi-liquid,  or  solid.  It  is  not  inflammable  or  affected  by 
the  most  corrosive  acids,  alkalies,  saline  substances,  etc.  It  is  a 
German  product  and  the  compound  remains  a  secret. 

ISOLATINE. — An  American  insulating  material  prepared 
especially  for  high  resistances.  It  is  said  to  be  very  flexible,  not 
to  be  affected  by  cold  or  heat  unless  the  latter  is  artificial,  and 
to  be  very  durable.  It  is  also  said  to  protect  metal. 


102       HARD  RUBBER  SUBSTITUTES. 

KIEL  COMPOUNDS. — One  of  these  well-known  compositions 
consists  of  India-rubber,  sulphur,  pumice  stone,  oil,  and  beeswax. 
The  resultant  compound  makes  a  hard  rubber,  said  to  possess  a 
superior  elasticity  and  toughness,  and  capable  of  being  vulcanized 
in  sheets  at  least  2.\  inches  thick.  This  compound  is  not  affected 
by  the  most  intense  cold,  and  will  stand  a  higher  temperature  than 
ordinary  rubber.  It  also  burns  with  difficulty.  Its  ingredients 
are  said  to  mix  faster  and  more  uniformly  than  those  of  other 
compounds.  It  resists  acids,  and  other  corrosive  substances,  is  a 
perfect  insulating  material,  and  is  cheap.  Another  Kiel  compound 
is  made  of  India-rubber,  sulphur,  and  mineral  oil.  The  resultant 
compound  is  more  flexible  than  ordinary  hard  rubber,  and  when 
warm  is  more  plastic  than  such  compounds.  It  is  also  less  brittle 
and  cheaper,  and  can  be  turned  in  a  lathe  with  greater  facility  and 
less  injury  to  the  tools. 

KERATITE. — Another  name  for  hard  rubber,  derived  from  the 
Greek  word  meaning  horn. 

KERATOL. — An  American  waterproof  preparation,  not  of  the 
nature  of  rubber,  but  probably  one  of  the  cellulose  substitutes.  It 
is  a  colorless  transparent  substance,  and  when  applied  to  fabrics 
renders  them  waterproof  and  prevents  crocking  and  fading.  It 
also  strengthens  the  fabric,  and  allows  stains  to  be  washed  off.  An 
artificial  leather  is  also  made  of  Keratol.  The  name  is  adapted 
from  the  Greek  word  keros,  meaning  hornlike.  Invented  by  Par- 
ker R.  Bradley,  United  States. 

LAMINA  FIBER. — An  American  invention,  used  chiefly  for 
electrical  purposes.  It  is  of  various  colors,  heavier  than  vulcan- 
ized rubber,  and  swells  to  nearly  double  its  weight  when  placed 
in  water.  It  is  probably  a  cellulose  compound  containing  no 
rubber. 

LACTITIS. — An  artificial  ivory  made  from  milk,  the  process 
being  coagulation,  straining,  and  rejection  of  the  whey.  Ten 
pounds  of  the  curd  are  then  taken  and  mixed  with  the  solution  of 
3  pounds  of  borax  in  3  quarts  of  water.  The  mixture  is  then  placed 
in  a  vessel  over  slow  fire  and  left  until  it  separates  into  two  parts, 
one  as  thin  as  water,  the  other  resembling  melted  gelatine.  The 
watery  part  is  drawn  off,  and  to  the  residue  is  added  a  solution  of 
i  pound  of  mineral  salt  in  3  pints  of  water.  (Sugar  of  lead 


LACTITIS—PLASTITE.  103 

answers  very  well  as  the  mineral  salt. )  This  brings  about  another 
separation  of  the  mass,  into  a  liquid  and  a  mushy  solid.  The  liquid 
is  strained  or  filtered  off,  and  at  this  point  coloring  matter  may 
be  added.  The  solid  is  now  subjected  to  heavy  pressure  in  molds 
of  any  shape,  and  afterwards  dried  under  great  heat.  The  result- 
ing product  may  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  billard  balls,  knife 
handles,  or  anything  for  which  ebonite  or  celluloid  is  adapted. 

LEATHEROID. — A  mixture  of  American  origin,  made  in  black, 
red  and  gray,  and  similar  to  vulcanized  fiber.  It  is  insoluble  in 
ordinary  solvents,  uninjured  by  alcohol,  ether,  ammonia,  turpen- 
tine, naphtha,  or  other  oils,  is  very  tough,  is  a  good  insulator,  and 
is  of  low  cost. 

MARLOID. — An  insulating  material  said  to  be  made  from  the 
hides  of  certain  animals,  treated  by  a  chemical  process,  making  it 
so  hard  that  it  can  be  handled  in  every  way  the  same  as  ebonite. 
It  may  be  transparent  or  opaque,  and  is -capable  of  receiving  a  very 
high  polish.  It  is  said  to  give  an  insulation  of  2,000  megohms, 
is  uninflammable,  and  is  of  English  origin. 

MICANITE. — Mica  cemented  together  under  pressure  with  an 
India-rubber  compound.  Manufactured  in  America. 

NIGRITE. — An  insulating  compound  consisting  of  a  mixture 
of  India-rubber  and  ozocerite. 

PEGAMOID. — This,  although  covered  by  several  patents,  is 
said  also  to  involve  certain  secret  processes.  In  a  general  way, 
however,  the  substance  is  prepared  by  treating  a  fine  grade  of  eel  - 
lulose  with  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid  to  form  nitro- 
cellulose or  gun  cotton,  which  is  then  dissolved  in  a  suitable 
alcohol.  The  Pegamoid  patents  call  for  the  addition  of  glycerine, 
sweet  or  olive  oil,  and  various  coloring  matters. 

PLASTICON. — See  Fibrone. 

PLASTITE. — A  vulcanite  which  is  made  extra  hard  and  is 
not  possessed  of  any  special  amount  of  elasticity.  The  stock 
recipe  for  this  is:  India-rubber  100  parts,  sulphur  25  parts,  mag- 
nesia 50  parts,  orpiment  50  parts,  coal  tar  asphaltum  60  parts.  It 
is  very  hard  and  solid,  and  takes  a  high  degree  of  smoothness  and 
polish.  (Hoffer.) 

POTATO  CELLULOID. — An  Austrian  invention  relating  to  an 
artificial  solid  produced  from  potatoes  boiled  36  hours  in  a  fluid 


104       HARD  RUBBER  SUBSTITUTES. 

containing  8  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  and  100  parts  of  water,  and 
then  dried.  Pipe  bowls  made  from  it  for  the  French  market  are 
said  to  be  hardly  distinguishable  from  real  meerschaum.  Billiard 
balls  are  also  said  to  be  made  from  it. 

PRESSPAHM.— An  English  insulating  material  made  from 
wood  fiber  so  treated  that  it  can  be  run  through  rolls  into  sheets 
of  varying  thicknesses.  It  is  said  to  be  capable  of  withstanding 
high  temperatures,  and  is  used  not  only  in  connection  with  elec- 
trical machinery,  but  also  for  bookbinding  and  for  putting  a  finish 
on  cloth. 

SOREI/S  COMPOUND. — A  so-called  substitute  for  Gutta-percha 
consisting  of  2  parts  resin,  2  parts  asphaltum,  8  parts  resin  oil,  6 
parts  slaked  lime,  3  parts  water,  10  parts  potter's  clay,  and  12 
parts  Gutta-percha.  Five  per  cent,  of  stearic  acid  is  sometimes 
added. 

STABILIT. — A  German  invention,  the  compound  for  which  is 
a  secret,  designed  to  be  half  way  between  hard  rubber  and  vul- 
canized fiber.  It  is  not  affected  by  corroding  substances,  and  does 
not  absorb  moisture.  It  withstands  boiling  water  where  hard  rub- 
ber and  vulcanized  fiber  do  not,  and  is  not  attacked  by  muriatic 
acid  or  sulphuric  acid. 

VEGETALINE. — Cellulose  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  dried 
and  ground,  and  then  treated  with  resinate  of  soda. 

VISCOSE. — An  English  cellulose  product  that  promises  much 
a  substitute  for  vulcanite.  It  may  be  of  any  color  or  any  degree 
of  hardness.  It  has  been  used  in  connection  with  rubber  experi- 
mentally with  excellent  results.  As  a  friction  for  belting  it  is 
said  to  be  excellent,  whether  or  not  the  belt  has  the  regulation 
rubber  cover. 

VISCOID. — A  compound  of  viscose,  formed  by  mixing  with  it 
hot  bituminous  matter  such  as  tar,  pitch  dissolved  in  coal  tar,  or 
the  like.  The  resultant  mixture,  when  solidified,  constitutes  a  mate- 
rial of  a  high  insulating  character,  and  is  produced  at  low  cost. 
The  bituminous  and  cellulose  matter  may  be  mixed  in  equal  pro- 
portions, although  there  is  a  wide  range  of  compounds  that  may 
be  made  through  the  use  of  various  proportions  of  the  substances. 

VITRITF. — A  jet  black,  perfectly  hard  material,  having  a 
smooth  polished  appearance  similar  to  ebonite.  It  is  not  affected 


MISCELLANEOUS  SUBSTITUTES.  105 

by  dampness  or  acids.  It  is  a  good  insulator,  is  of  low  cost,  and 
easily  worked. 

VULCABESTON. — This  is  a  composition  of  asbestos  and  India- 
rubber,  forming  a  product  which  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity 
and  stands  the  severest  tests,  resisting  heat  wonderfully.  Invented 
by  R.  N.  Pratt,  United  States. 

VULCANIZED  FIBER. — This  material,  which  is  very  largely 
used,  is  made  of  cotton  paper  pulp,  chemically  dissolved,  and  solid- 
ified under  enormous  pressure.  It  is  unattacked  by  ordinary  sol- 
vents such  as  alcohol,  turpentine,  ammonia,  etc.  It  appears  on 
the  market  in  two  forms — hard  and  flexible.  The  hard  fiber 
resembles  horn  and  is  exceedingly  tough  and  strong,  while  the 
flexible  fiber  has  the  appearance  of  a  very  close  grained  leather. 
It  is  an  insulator  in  dry  places,  but,  as  it  will  absorb  moisture, 
it  is  useless  in  places  requiring  waterproof  qualities.  It  is  made 
in  three  colors — black,  red,  and  gray.  Vulcanized  fiber  is  unaf- 
fected by  oils  or  fats,  and  will  stand  action  of  hot  grease.  Low 
grades  have  been  found  adulterated  with  chloride  of  zinc  and 
calcium,  to  the  extent  of  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  its  weight. 

WILLOUGHBY  SMITHES  GUTTA-PERCHA. — Gutta-percha  refin- 
ed by  a  special  process  invented  by  Willoughby  Smith.  Valued  in 
England  as  giving  an  increased  speed  over  electrical  conductors 
insulated  with  it. 

WRAY^S  COMPOUND. — A  composition  of  India-rubber,  silicia, 
powdered  alum,  and  Gutta-percha.  Used  in  climates  too  hot  for 
Gutta-percha  by  itself.  It  is  easily  attacked  by  seawater. 

III.     MISCELLANEOUS  SUBSTITUTES  AND  COMPOUNDS. 

"Apo  ELASTIKON  HYPHASMA." — An  English  formula  for  this 
is:  Take  caoutchouc  and  grind  it  with  a  portion  of  residue  from 
cottonseed  oil.  Work  in  as  much  vegetable  fiber  as  will  convert  it 
into  a  strong  felt,  adding  as  much  farinaceous  matter  as  will  fit  it 
for  the  finishing  roller.  The  outside  husk  from  rice,  finely  ground, 
is  preferable.  Stearine  pitch  may  be  added  to  give  a  greater  stiff- 
ness ;  also  chalk  and  steatite  may  be  used  to  harden  it. 

ASBESTONIT. — An  asbestos  product  manufactured  in  Eng- 
land under  a  secret  process,  for  use  as  steam  or  hot  water  packing. 

ASTRICTUM. — A  compound  to  be  used  in  damp  places,  con- 


106  MISCELLANEO  US  SUBSTITUTES. 

sisting  of  pulped  cotton  15  pounds,  pitch  25  pounds,  asphalt  20 
pounds,  ground  granite  rock  20  pounds,  bitumen  5  pounds,  resin 
10  pounds,  coal  tar  12  pounds,  and  mastic  5  pounds. 

CAOUTCHITE. — Vulcanized  rubber  exposed  to  heat  (250°  F.) 
for  several  days  and  devulcanized  and  recovered  by  this  means 
alone. 

CORK  LEATHER. — A  French  invention  composed  of  thin  sheets 
of  cork,  covered  on  both  sides  with  an  extremely  thin  India-rubber 
skin,  and  of  a  textile  fabric  outside.  It  is  very  light,  is  a  good 
insulator  against  heat,  and  is  waterproof. 

DERMATINE. — A  well  known  substitute  for  India-rubber  and 
leather,  made  of  an  artificial  Gutta-percha  called  "gum  percha," 
7  pounds;  powdered  waste  rubber,  7  pounds;  India-rubber,  14 
pounds;  sulphide  of  antimony,  6  pounds;  peroxide  of  iron,  2 
pounds;  flour  of  sulphur,  2  pounds  8  ounces;  alum,  4  pounds  8 
ounces ;  asbestos,  powder,  8  pounds ;  sulphuret  of  zinc,  3  pounds ; 
carbonate  of  magnesia,  7  pounds.  A  little  change  in  this  com- 
pound adapts  it  for  machine  belts.  A  variety  of  colors  is  gained 
by  mixing  in  various  pigments  in  place  of  sulphuret  of  antimony 
or  peroxide  of  iron.  The  invention  is  patented  by  Maximilian 
Zingler,  of  London.  It  is  claimed  that  Dermatine  will  stand  more 
wear  than  either  leather  or  rubber,  that  it  is  absolutely  unaffected 
by  heat,  cold,  dryness,  or  moisture ;  and  that  it  will  stand  perfectly 
the  action  of  grease,  oils,  or  acids.  Adaptations  of  the  formula 
given  above  permit  it  to  be  manufactured  in  molded  forms.  It  is 
used  for  valves,  packing,  etc.,  and  also  for  covering  insulated  wire. 

DURATE. — An  artificial  rubber  compound  said  to  be  similar 
to  Dermatine. 

FIBRINE-CHRISTIA  GUM  is  manufactured  just  as  Christia 
gum  is,  except  that  silk  fibers  are  used  in  the  place  of  hemp. 

FROST  RUBBER. — Another  name  for  what  is  practically  sponge 
rubber  made  from  any  ordinary  unvulcanized  rubber  compound 
by  the  addition  of  a  little  alum  or  carbonate  of  ammonia. 

HEVEENOID. — This  is  claimed  to  be  more  insoluble,  durable, 
and  pliable  than  almost  any  other  rubber  composition.  Soft  He- 
veenoid  consists  of  India-rubber  32  parts,  camphor  32  parts,  lime 
i  part,  and  sulphur  8  parts.  Hard  Heveenoid  is  made  of  India- 
rubber  6  parts,  camphor  4  parts,  glycerine  I  part,  and  sulphur  16 


HE  VEENOID—LIMEITE.  107 

parts.  Heveenoid  is  the  invention  of  Henry  Gerner,  of  New 
York,  and  is  patented  in  the  United  States  and  Europer  Kauri 
gum  is  also  used  in  certain  Heveenoid  compositions.  One  special 
advantage  claimed  as  to  the  use  of  camphor  is  that  the  chemical 
compound  termed  sulphide  of  camphor  is  produced,  and  there- 
fore the  rubber  does  not  bloom. 

HEVEENITE. — Another  name  for  Heveenoid. 

INDIA-RUBBER  LEATHER. — A  compound  produced  by  Nelson 
Goodyear  in  which  fibrous  substances  were  mixed  with  India- 
rubber  to  form  a  body  the  surface  of  which  resembles  leather. 

KAMPTULICON. — An  India-rubber  compound  for  floor  cover- 
ings. The  simplest  English  formula  is  a  vegetable  fibrous  material 
ground  into  a  coarse  powder,  mixed  with  India-rubber,  and  treated 
with  a  cheap  solvent,  such  as  coal  tar  or  naphtha.  Coloring  mat- 
ters are  added,  if  desired.  Another  Kamptulicon  compound  is: 
Gutta-percha,  cheap  grade,  6  pounds;  reclaimed  rubber,  12 
pounds ;  residuum  from  distilling  palm  oil,  6  pounds ;  ground  cork, 
4  pounds;  ground  chalk,  2  pounds;  sulphur,  6  pounds;  hair,  I 
pound ;  oxide  of  zinc,  I  pound. 

KIRRAGE  COMPOUND. — A  well-known  English  patented  com- 
pound, which  takes  its  name  from  the  inventor.  It  comes  in  two 
forms.  The  first,  to  be  used  not  over  200°  F.,  is  composed  of 
India-rubber  12  pounds,  Gutta-percha  4  pounds,  Stockholm  tar 
25  pounds,  chalk  60  pounds,  hemp  4  pounds,  and  sulphur  10 
pounds.  The  same  inventor  also  recommends  the  following,  to 
withstand  a  great  heat  and  pressure :  India-rubber  20  pounds,  tar 
25  pounds,  coke,  finely  powdered,  25  pounds;  Stourbridge  clay 
25  pounds,  sulphur  10  pounds,  fine  emery  25  pounds,  and  steel 
filings  5  pounds. 

LEATHERINE  is  a  compound  that  closely  approaches  Derma- 
tine,  and  in  fact  is  a  part  of  the  first  patent  on  that  product.  It 
is  intended  as  a  substitute  for  leather  cloth  and  is  made  as  follows : 
India-rubber  28  pounds,  substitute  10  pounds,  sulphuret  of  anti- 
mony 13  pounds,  peroxide  of  iron  4  pounds,  sulphur  3  pounds, 
sulphuret  of  zinc  10  pounds,  carbonate  of  magnesia  23  pounds, 
and  sulphate  baryta  8  pounds. 

LIMEITE. — A  cement  that  is  manufactured  from  melted  In- 
dia-rubber, with  the  addition  of  8  per  cent,  of  tallow,  with  suffi- 


io8  MISCELLANEO  US  SUBSTITUTES. 

cient  slaked  lime  to  give  it  the  consistency  of  soft  paste.  The  ad- 
dition of  20  per  cent,  of  vermilion  causes  the  mass  to  harden 
immediately  . 

MADANITE. — A  binding  material  for  smooth  surfaces,  such 
as  air-pumps,  etc.,  made  of  2  parts  by  weight  of  vaseline,  and  I 
part  India-rubber,  melted.  This  mixture  may  be  left  for  years 
without  perceptible  alteration.  A  low  grade  gum  used  in  the 
same  way  in  connection  with  vaseline  makes  an  excellent  insulat- 
ing tape,  and  has  also  been  used  as  a  friction  gum. 

METALINED  RUBBER. — A  name  used  for  compounds  used  in 
dental  work,  under  a  process  patented  by  C.  S.  Leadbetter,  Man- 
chester, England,  for  strengthening  the  gum  with  a  metallic 
fabric,  \voven  or  knit. 

MOROCCOLINE. — An  imitation  leather  made  from  a  secret 
compound  which  presumably  has  India-rubber  for  its  base.  Made 
in  various  colors  but  chiefly  as  an  imitation  of  Morocco  leather. 
An  American  product. 

OKONITE. — A  well-known  compound  for  insulating  wires  and 
cables.  According  to  an  English  analyist,  it  consists  of  India- 
rubber,  49.6  per  cent. ;  sulphur,  5.3  per  cent. ;  lamp  black,  3.2  per 
cent. ;  zinc  oxide,  15.5  per  cent. ;  litharge,  26.3  per  cent. ;  and  silica, 
o.i  per  cent. 

PANTASOTE. — A  secret  compound,  probably  of  oxidized  oil, 
which  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  artificial  leather  coverings 
for  furniture,  bookbindings,  etc. 

PEDRYOID. — A  rubber-like  finish  for  cloth,  made  presumably 
of  oil,  in  tan,  brown,  olive,  and  other  colors,  and  used  chiefly  in 
shoe  finishing. 

RATHITE. — A  mixture  in  which  waste  silk  fibers  are  incor- 
porated with  India-rubber  to  impart  resiliency  and  durability. 
About  6  ounces  of  silk  are  used  with  28  pounds  of  rubber  com- 
pound. It  is  employed  in  making  tires,  pump  valves,  packings, 
etc.  Patented  by  A.  I.  Rath,  Cheshire,  England. 

RUBBERIC. — Fiber  blended  with  India-rubber  in  solution, 
stretched,  and  dried.  Used  chiefly  in  making  rubber  tires  and  me- 
chanical rubber  goods.  Patented  by  William  Golding,  Manches- 
ter, England. 

RUBBER  VELVET. — Manufactured  by  sprinkling  powdered  felt 


RECLAIMED  RUBBER.  109 

of  a  variety  of  colors  over  proofed  cloth  before  vulcanization.  The 
result  is  a  velvet-like  fabric,  elastic  and  waterproof. 

THESKELON  CEMENT. — A  metalic  substance  used  for  water- 
proofing and  for  certain  kinds  of  packings.  It  will  neither  ex- 
pand, contract,  nor  rust.  It  is  used  instead  of  wax  for  sealing 
purposes,  and  resists  acids,  alkalies,  and  grease.  It  is  often  used 
in  place  of  asphaltum.  It  can  be  mixed  with  tar,  pitch,  asphal- 
tum,  and  other  similar  ingredients,  the  compound  possessing  ex- 
traordinary adhesive  power.  Patented  by  Thomas  Smith,  London. 

VULCANINE. — A  mixture  of  India-rubber,  asbestos,  litharge, 
lime,  and  powdered  zinc,  to  which  is  added  a  percentage  of  sul- 
phur. Mentioned  in  a  patent  granted  to  J.  E.  Hopkinson,  West 
Dray  ton,  England. 

WHALEITE. — See  Woodite. 

WOODITE. — A  name  suggested  by  Sir  E.  J.  Reed  for  an  India- 
rubber  compound  invented  by  Mrs.  A.  M.  Wood.  It  is  said  to 
possess  the  elasticity  of  India-rubber,  to  be  uninflammable,  and  not 
injured  by  salt  water.  It  is  used  in  making  valves,  packings,  etc. 
It  is  claimed  that  it  will  not  become  sticky  or  soft  under  heat  or 
steam  pressure,  and  will  stand  hot  grease  and  other  lubricants,  and 
neither  acids,  alkalies,  nor  wastes  from  oil  refineries,  distilleries, 
etc.,  affect  it  in  the  least.  A  compound  for  Woodite  or  Whaleite 
packing  is :  Asbestos  fiber  38  pounds,  asbestos  powder  38  pounds, 
earth  wax  6  pounds,  charcoal  finely  ground  9  pounds,  ground 
whalebone  20  pounds,  Para  rubber  80  pounds,  and  sulphur  5 
pounds. 

IV.     RECLAIMED   RUBBER. 

RECLAIMED  rubber,  known  also  as  recovered  rubber,  shoddy, 
and  crumb,  is  produced  from  worn-out  rubber  goods.  There  are 
two  methods  in  vogue,  known  respectively  as  the  mechanical  and 
the  chemical  processes.  The  most  satisfactory  reclaimed  rubber 
is  made  from  old  rubber  shoes.  Where  the  mechanical  process  is 
followed,  the  rubbers  are  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  which  is  run 
over  magnets  to  extract  the  iron,  and  is  then  put  through  a  blow- 
ing process,  which  separates  and  woolen  or  cotton  fibers  from  the 
rubber.  The  rubber  powder  in  then  subjected  to  a  high  degree 
of  heat  (the  process  known  as  devulcanization),  and  afterwards 


no  RECLAIMED  RUBBER. 

sheeted,  when  it  is  very  similar  to  unvulcanized  compounded 
rubber. 

The  chemical  process  is  very  similar  to  the  mechanical,  ex- 
cept that  the  fiber  is  destroyed  by  means  of  acid  solutions  and 
quite  a  percentage  of  it  is  washed  out  with  the  residue  of  the  acid 
after  the  process  is  finished.  Special  grades  of  reclaimed  rubber 
are  made  from  mechanical  goods  that  have  high  grade  frictions  in 
them  and  also  from  unvulcanized  scrap.  Rubber  is  also  reclaimed 
from  ordinary  mechanical  goods,  such  as  hose,  belting,  and  pack- 
ing, and  for  certain  purposes  is  mixed  with  what  is  known  as  shoe 
shoddy.  White  scrap,  from  wringer  rolls,  tubing,  druggists'  sun- 
dries, and  the  like,  is  also  produced.  The  great  trouble  with  the 
white  is  that,  on  second  vulcanization,  it  is  apt  to  be  very  hard. 
At  one  time,  hard  rubber  dust  was  to  be  found  in  the  market  and 
was  used  as  a  shoddy  in  certain  grades  of  vulcanite.  There  is 
to-day  but  very  little  of  it  to  be  found,  however,  as  most  of  the 
manufacturers  of  hard  rubber  goods  find  a  use  for  all  that  they 
make. 

The  processes  followed  in  the  reclaiming  of  waste  rubber  are 
no  longer  secret.  Those  who  are  in  .the  business  of  manufactur- 
ing for  the  trade  are  able  to  do  it  as  a  rule  because  they  buy  waste 
stock  in  very  large  quantities  at  a  lower  figure  than  a  small  user 
could,  besides  which,  by  manufacturing  the  goods  in  large  quan- 
tities, they  can  do  it  more  economically  than  it  could  be  done  in  a 
small  way.  It  is  not  exposing  any  trade  secrets,  therefore,  if  one 
briefly  reviews  the  various  processes  employed. 

Almost  the  first  attempt  at  recovering  rubber  waste  was  that 
done  at  the  Beverly  Rubber  Works,  in  Massachusetts,  back  in  the 
fifties,  when  Hiram  L,  Hall  boiled  waste  vulcanized  rubber  in 
water,  after  reducing  it  to  a  powder,  and  then  sheeted  it.  It  is 
a  curious  fact,  that  in  one  little  mill  in  the  United  States  to-day, 
the  manufacturer  grinds  his  own  scrap,  boils  it  in  hot  water  until 
it  is  in  condition  to  sheet,  and  really  makes  a  fair  article  out  of  it. 

The  year  after  HalPs  patent  was  granted,  another  was  grant- 
ed to  Francis  Bashchnagel,  who  paved  the  way  for  devulcaniza- 
tion  by  covering  a  process  whereby  a  finely  ground  rubber  was 
exposed  to  the  action  of  live  steam.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
E.  H.  Clapp  took  hold  of  the  business  and  discovered  a  process 


PATENTED  PROCESSES.  in 

for  blowing  the  fiber  out  of  the  finely  ground  rubber  prior  to  its 
devulcanization  that  the  goods  began  to  be  used  to  a  large  extent. 

The  next  step  in  the  progress  of  the  art  was  characterized  by 
the  taking  out  of  a  great  variety  of  patents,  most  of  which  depend 
upon  various  acids  and  alkalies  for  destroying  the  fiber.  These 
patents  were  more  than  fifty  in  number,  and  were  fully  reviewed 
with  their  attendant  processes  in  the  famous  suits  brought  by  the 
Chemical  Rubber  Co.  against  The  Goodyear' s  Metallic  Rubber 
Shoe  Co.  and  the  Raymond  Rubber  Co.  While  it  would  be  tedi- 
ous to  go  into  that  matter,  it  is  interesting  to  touch  upon  the  im- 
portant processes  involved.  The  action  of  acids  upon  fibers,  of 
course,  had  long  been  known ;  in  connection  with  the  rubber  busi- 
ness, however,  it  was  without  doubt  novel.  The  Hay  ward  pa- 
tent, for  instance,  mixed  75  pounds  of  sulphuric  acid  with  8  hogs- 
heads of  water,  and  in  this  way  the  fiber  was  weakened  so  that 
it  was  easily  ground  up  with  the  rubber.  The  Faure  patent  called 
simply  for  the  immersion  of  the  clippings  in  an  acid,  which  in 
disintegrating  the  textile  matter  set  the  India-rubber  free.  Hiram 
Hall  advised  the  use  of  lime  or  alum  to  eat  up  the  cloth,  and  also 
a  solution  of  I  part  of  sulphuric  acid  to  9  parts  of  water.  Burg- 
hardt  used  muriatic  acid  for  destroying  the  cloth  fiber.  The  Hein- 
zerling  patent  called  for  a  treatment  first  with  acids,  and  then 
with  alkalies.  It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  Charles  Goodyear 
directed  that  crude  India-rubber  should  be  subjected  to  a  10  per 
cent,  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  to  eat  up  the  bark  with  which  the 
gum  might  be  contaminated. 

The  Mitchell  patents,  the  Bourn  patents,  and  others,  where 
an  extremely  dilute  acid  was  used,  and  where  a  concentrated 
acid  was  called  for,  have  been  so  thoroughly  reviewed  that  those 
familiar  with  the  rubber  business  know  all  about  the  processes 
employed. 

In  addition  to  those  that  are  now  in  use,  a  few  unusual  ones 
may  be  interesting.  For  example,  the  Torstrick  process,  in  which 
dilute  nitric  acid  and  fusel  oil  were  mixed  with  the  gum  in  a 
heated  state,  or  passed  through  it  in  the  shape  of  vapors,  making 
the  mass  sticky,  after  which  a  small  quantity  of  chloride  of  cal- 
cium was  added  and  the  gum  sheeted. 

Conrad  Poppenhusen  mixed  rubber  scrap  with  essential  oils, 


ii2  RECLAIMED  RUBBER. 

a  little  turpentine  being  used  preferably,  left  the  scrap  until  it  had 
become  soft,  and  then  passed  dry  gaseous  ammonia  into  the  mass, 
forming  a  gelatinous  viscid  product. 

C.  F.  E.  Simond  mixed  2  parts  of  chloride  of  lime  with  100 
parts  of  waste  rubber,  and  brought  it  to  a  high  degree  of  heat, 
by  which  the  sulphur  was  volatilized,  which  took  from  15  to  60 
minutes  and  then  used  the  rubber  over. 

Thomas  J.  Mayall  mixed  vegetable  tar  with  waste  rubber — 
exposed  it  to  the  heat  of  the  sun,  or  to  a  gentle  artificial  heat,  and 
got  a  soft  pasty  mass  that  he  was  able  to  work  with  crude  rubber. 
He  also  invented  a  process  for  sprinkling  the  finely  ground  rub- 
ber with  camphine  and  setting  the  mass  afire  in  a  partially  covered 
vessel,  his  claim  being  that  if  the  fire  was  stopped  at  a  certain 
point,  a  tough  viscid  mass  was  the  result,  which  contained  neither 
sulphur  nor  fiber,  and  could  be  reworked  like  unvulcanized  rubber. 

Beylikgy  exposed  vulcanized  rubber  for  a  number  of  days  to 
a  temperature  of  250°  F.,  after  which  he  claimed  that  it  became  an 
adhesive  mass,  insoluble  in  alcohol,  partially  soluble  in  ether,  and 
wholly  soluble  in  benzole.  He  called  this  caoutchoucite  and 
claimed  that  it  could  be  vulcanized  with  the  addition  of  sulphur 
at  a  lower  temperature  than  ordinary  crude  rubber. 

McCartney,  of  Glasgow,  mixed  vulcanized  rubber  with  naph- 
tha and  a  little  acetic  acid.  He  also  added  camphor,  and  by  the 
action  of  heat  produced  in  reality  a  rubber  paint. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  processes  that  have  been  em- 
ployed, and  this  information,  in  connection  with  the  rubber  super- 
intendent's knowledge  of  his  particular  problem,  may  in  some 
cases  enable  him  to  reduce  intractable  and  valueless  wastes  to  a 
condition  where  it  can  be  used  in  the  factory. 

The  following  are  the  principal  grades  of  reclaimed  rubber 
now  on  the  market,  a  few  manufacturers  using  copyrighted  or 
distinctive  names : 

"Eureka"  rubber. — The  highest  grade  of  black  reclaimed 
rubber. 

"Atalanta." — A  name  for  a  good  grade  of  reclaimed  rubber 
of  Eureopean  manufacture. 

"Pongo." — A  name  for  American  reclaimed  rubbers  when 
they  are  sold  in  the  European  market. 


CELLULOID  AND  CELLULOSE.  113 

"Excelsior." — A  high  grade  of  reclaimed  rubber  said  to  be 
made  largely  of  unvulcanized  clippings. 

"Acme." — A  fine  grade  of  American  reclaimed  rubber. 

"White  Extract." — A  good  grade  of  white  reclaimed  rubber 
sold  in  the  American  market  under  various  names. 

The  reclaimed  rubber  that  is  made  of  old  shoes  is  usually 
marketed  in  two  grades  only,  which  are  "Standard"  and  "XXX.," 
the  difference  being  well  expressed  by  the  price,  which  differs 
a  cent  to  the  pound. 

Special  grades  made  of  tires,  inner  tubes,  air-brake  hose,  etc., 
are  marketed,  but  are  usually  named  for  the  kind  of  scrap  from 
which  they  are  taken. 

V.— CELLULOID  AND  CELLULOSE  PRODUCTS. 

CELLULOID  is  made  in  the  main  from  camphor  and  nitro- 
cellulose in  alcohol,  ether  being  sometimes  employed  as  an  addi- 
tional solvent.  The  paste  formed  in  this  way  is  warmed  gently, 
and  then  rolled  out  into  thin  sheets.  The  product  is  a  brittle 
horny  mass,  consisting  of  a  chemical,  or  at  least  an  intimate,  mix- 
ture of  camphor  and  pyroxyline.  A  great  variety  of  coloring 
matters  may  be  added  to  it,  and  it  is  susceptible  to  manipulation 
and  processes  whereby  it  has  been  made  quite  flexible  and  prac- 
tically incombustible.  Crude  celluloid  has  a  specific  gravity  vary- 
ing between  1.25  and  1.45,  and  has  a  strong  odor  of  camphor. 

CELLULOSE  is  a  pure  substance  forming  the  cellular  tissue  of 
plants.  In  the  arts  use  is  made  generally  of  cotton  or  filter 
paper  which  has  been  treated  with  acids  to  dissolve  out  impurities, 
and  forms  a  basis  for  the  manufacture  of  celluloid,  gun  cotton, 
pyroxoline,  and  xylonite.  On  analysis  it  shows:  Carbon  44.44, 
hydrogen  6.18,  oxygen  49.38.  It  is  dissolved  in  sulphuric  acid, 
and  is  converted  into  dextrine,  and,  by  prolonging  the  action,  into 
glucose.  So  far  it  has  not  been  used  largely  in  rubber  compound- 
ing, but  both  alone  and  in  connection  with  various  other  ingre- 
dients has  been  applied  as  a  waterproofing.  It  is  the  basis  of  cer- 
tain Swiss  puncture  fluids. 

GUN  COTTON. — Prepared  by  treating  cotton  wool  with  a  mix- 
ture of  strong  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  or  nitrate  of  potash  may 
be  substituted  for  nitric  acid.  After  treatment  with  acid  the  gun 


n4       CELLULOID  AND  CELLULOSE. 

cotton  is  rinsed  carefully  in  cold  running  water,  and  then  dried  by 
pressure  or  by  exposure  to  the  air.  All  acid  should  be  removed  to 
prevent  danger  of  explosion.  Gun  Cotton  has  been  used  to  render 
fabrics  waterproof,  for  varnishing  India-rubber  to  render  it  im- 
pervious to  gases,  and  in  insulation  work.  Alexander  Parkes,  as 
far  back  as  1855,  used  a  solution  of  Gun  Cotton  with  gums  or 
resins  to  take  the  place  of  compounds  of  India-rubber.  He  ren- 
dered Gun  Cotton  less  inflammable  by  using  biphosphate  of  am- 
monia, magnesia,  talc,  alum,  or  similar  substances.  As  a  good 
solvent  for  Gun  Cotton,  he  distilled  in  i  gallon  of  naphtha  from 
2  to  6  pounds  of  chloride  of  calcium.  Charles  Macintosh  used  as 
a  solvent  equal  parts  of  wood  spirit  and  coal  tar  naphtha. 

NITRO-CELLULOSE. — This  is  produced  by  the  action  upon  cel- 
lulose of  nitric  acid  or  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids. 
According  to  the  length  of  time  the  acid  is  allowed  to  act,  the 
resulting  nitro-cellulose  contains  either  53.7,  43.6,  36.7,  or  28  per 
cent,  of  nitric  acid  (nitric-anhydride).  Gun  cotton  is  usually  a 
mixture  containing  a  higher  percentages  while  Pyroxyline — or  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  soluble  cotton — is  a  mixture  of  a  lower  com- 
pounds. The  solution  of  pyroxyline  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and 
ether  is  called  Collodion. 

PYROXYLINE. — A  species  of  gun  cotton  less  explosive  in  its 
qualities,  prepared  from  cellulose  by  means  of  nitro-sulphuric  acid. 
Its  solution  in  a  mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol  is  called  Collodion. 

XYLONITE. — See  Celluloid. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

RESINS,  BALSAMS,  GUMS,  EARTH  WAXES,  AND  GUM-LIKE  SUBSTANCES 
USED  IN  RUBBER  COMPOUNDING. 

A  GREAT  variety  of  vegetable,  mineral,  and  animal  resins  and 
waxes  find  uses  in  admixture  with  India-rubber  and  Gutta-per- 
cha. Their  important  uses  are  to  render  compounds  adhesive,  as 
in  frictions,  to  assist  in  insulation,  to  add  luster,  and  to  modify  the 
texture  of  the  vulcanized  compound.  Many  gums,  like  many 
earths,  lend  special  virtues  which  they  possess  to  rubber  com- 
pounds. The  more  important  of  these  materials,  and  those  most 
generally  used,  are  described  in  the  following  pages. 

ADAMANTA  RESIN. — An  imitation  copal,  manufactured  from 
common  resin  by  a  special  hardening  process.  It  is  not  soluble 
in  alcohol  or  benzine,  but  completely  so  in  boiling  turpentine.  It 
is  free  from  arids  and  alkalies,  and  has  the  same  melting  point  as 
Zanzibar  copal.  It  is  used  rarely  in  rubber  shoe  varnish,  and  often 
in  cheap  frictions  in  mechanical  lines,  being  moistened  with  resin 
oil  to  increase  its  adhesiveness. 

AMBER. — A  fossil  resin  chiefly  found  in  Prussia,  on  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  sea;  it  occurs  also  in  Sicily  and  sometimes  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  the  hardest  and  heaviest  of  the  resins.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  about  1.07.  By  distillation  a  yellow  oil — oleum 
succini  or  oil  of  amber — is  obtained,  and  a  yellow  resin  remains 
in  the  still.  Amber  varies  in  color  from  light  yellow  to  a  deep 
brownish  red.  It  is  insoluble  in  almost  all  of  the  ordinary  sol- 
vents. When  heated  above  its  melting  point,  however,  it  becomes 
partly  decomposed,  and  is  then  soluble  in  oil  of  turpentine  and 
alcohol.  It  makes  a  very  fine  transparent  varnish,  which  is  used 
on  negatives  in  photographing.  It  is  used  in  cements  for  fasten- 
ing lineoleum  and  rubber  tiling  to  decks,  and  is  also  mentioned  in 
the  formulas  for  certain  patented  gums. 

ASPHALT  is  undoubtedly  an  oxidized  residue  from  evaporated 
petroleum.  This  name  is  applied  usually  to  the  solid  bitumen,  the 
liquid  being  called  mineral  tar,  and  sometimes  maltha.  It  is  chiefly 
made  up  of  hydrocarbons,  but  contains  a  certain  amount  of  sul- 
phur and  nitrogenous  bodies.  It  is  known  also  as  natural  pitch, 


n6  GUMS  AND  BALSAMS. 

Jews'  pitch,  asphaltum,  bitumen,  etc.  It  is  a  black  hard  substance 
which,  when  freshly  broken,  shows  shining  surfaces  that  are 
always  correspondingly  rounding  and  hollowing.  It  is  insoluble 
in  water  and  alcohol,  but  dissolves  in  benzine,  acetone,  and  carbon 
disulphide.  Is  used  in  rubber  compounding  in  place  of  coal  tar, 
and  in  insulating  compositions,  and  in  certain  substitutes  like  Ke- 
rite.  Commercially  there  are  two  grades,  known  as  "lake  pitch" 
and  "land  pitch,"  of  which  the  latter  is  the  harder. 

In  solution  it  is  used  sometimes  to  protect  rubber  goods  that 
are  exposed  to  the  destructive  influence  of  brine.  A  little  Asphalt 
is  also  said  to  increase  the  elasticity  of  hard  rubber.  Asphalt  mixed 
with  resin  and  oil  of  tar  forms  a  low  grade  artificial  Gutta-percha. 
It  is  added  to  "Cooley's  artificial  leather"  to  harden  it  and  enable 
it  to  resist  heat.  It  is  also  the  basis  of  one  type  of  marine  glue. 

ARTIFICIAL  ASPHALT. — This  is  made  by  heating  sulphur  and 
resin  together  to  about  250°  C,  where  the  reaction  takes  place, 
attended  by  the  evolution  of  sulphuret  and  hydrogen,  and  leaving 
an  almost  black,  pitchy  substance  resembling  asphalt.  It  is  insolu- 
ble in  alcohol,  but  dissolves  readily  in  benzine. 

AUVERGNE  BITUMEN. — A  species  of  natural  asphalt  found  in 
the  province  of  Auvergne,  France.  It  is  similar  to  Trinidad 
asphalt,  but  is  impure,  containing  clay,  silica,  magnesia,  iron,  and 
traces  of  arsenic.  (See  Asphalt.) 

BALSAM. — This  term  is  given  to  oleo  resins  which  are  soft  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  and  are  really  a  mixture  of  such  a  resin 
and  the  essential  oil  of  the  plant  from  which  they  exude,  such  as 
benzoin,  tolu,  etc. 

BALSAM  OF  STORAX. — Produced  from  the  inner  bark  of  a 
tree  of  the  genus  Storax,  in  Asia  Minor.  Commercially  it  is 
a  soft,  coarse,  dark  colored  powder,  or,  more  commonly,  a  semi- 
fluid, adhesive  substance,  brown  outside,  greenish  gray  inside. 
The  sweet  gum  of  the  southern  United  States  is  allied  to  the  East- 
ern drug,  and  was  formerly  much  used  in  chewing  gum.  Used 
in  general  cements,  being  particularly  good  in  leather  cements ; 
also  for  glass,  stone,  and  earthenware  cements. 

BALSAM  OF  SULPHUR. — A  solution  of  sulphur  in  boiling  vola- 
tile or  olive  oil.  Used  in  certain  rubber  compounds  as  a  vulcaniz- 
ing agent  and  a  protection  against  blooming. 


BEESWAX— B  URG  UND  Y  PITCH.  1 17 

BEESWAX  is  obtained  from  the  comb  built  by  honey  bees.  The 
crude  wax  is  yellow  and  soft,  with  a  granular  fracture.  Its  speci- 
fic gravity  varies  between  .965  and  .969,  its  melting  point  being 
between  140°  and  144°  F.  It  is  often  adulterated  by  water,  by 
white  mineral  powders,  and  by  cheaper  substances,  such  as  vege- 
table wax,  parafnne,  etc.  White  wax  is  that  which  has  been  ex- 
posed to  the  sun  or  to  the  moderate  action  of  nitric  or  chromic 
acid,  thereby  being  bleached.  It  is  sometimes  used  with  rubber 
in  medicinal  plasters.  Ordinary  beeswax  is  largely  used  in  the 
valuable  hard  rubber  compounds  known  as  the  Kiel  compounds. 
Sheet  beeswax  is  often  used  in  the  work  of  vulcanite  pattern  mak- 
ing. It  is  also  used  in  processes  for  making  fabrics  water-repel- 
lent, the  other  ingredients  being  aluminum,  resin,  soap,  wax,  and 
silicate  of  soda.  With  Gutta-percha  it  is  an  ingredient  in  shoe- 
makers' wax,  and  also  in  certain  proofing  compounds.  Hancock 
used  it  in  a  Gutta-percha  compound  for  a  soft  effect.  In  a  hard 
rubber  compound  made  up  of  India-rubber,  sulphur,  oil,  and 
pumice  stone,  it  is  said  to  be  acid  proof. 

BIRCH-BARK  TAR. — A  peculiar  tar  obtained  during  the  dis- 
tillation of  birch-bark  for  oil,  being  probably  the  same  as  Russian 
Jackten  extract.  Used  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  rubber  sub- 
stitutes. 

BITUMEN. — The  term  applied  to  a  body  made  up  of  several 
hydrocarbons.  It  resembles  Trinidad  asphalt  and  is  of  the  same 
nature.  Its  specific  gravity  is  from  1.073  to  i-i6a  Artificially  it 
is  prepared  from  shales,  mineral  asphalt,  etc.  It  is  used  as  a  source 
of  parafnne.  The  West  Indian  product  is  known  as  Chapapote. 
A  solution  is  made  from  it  in  which  the  tapes  are  soaked  that  are 
used  for  covering  wire  that  has  been  insulated  with  India-rubber. 
Bitumen  has  been  utilized  by  what  is  known  as  the  calender  pro- 
cess, which  is  a  partial  vulcanization,  rendering  it  valuable  as  an 
insulator. 

BLACK  PITCH. — Is  the  residue  left  after  the  oils  of  tar  have 
been  distilled  from  that  body.  Used  in  weather  proofing  work. 

BRITISH  GUM. — See  Dextrine. 

BURGUNDY  PITCH. — Is  obtained  from  the  hardened  juice  or 
sap  which  concretes  upon  the  bark  of  the  Norway  spruce.  As 
imported  it  is  often  quite  impure  and  should  be  melted  and  strained 


ii8  GUMS  AND  BALSAMS. 

before  being  used.  It  is  almost  entirely  soluble  in  glacial  acetic 
acid  or  boiling  alcohol,  and  somewhat  in  cold  alcohol.  When  pure 
it  is  hard  and  brittle,  with  a  shining  fracture,  reddish  or  yellowish- 
brown,  aromatic.  It  is  much  used  in  cements,  in  electric  tape,  and 
in  the  manufacture  of  porous  plasters.  Common  resin  is  often 
melted  and  mixed  with  fats  and  water,  forming  a  gum  that  much 
resembles  Burgundy  Pitch. 

BURMITE  AMBER. — Found  in  Burma,  but  quite  inferior  in 
quality.  It  is  a  little  harder  than  amber  proper,  is  easily  cut,  takes 
an  excellent  polish,  but  has  less  variety  of  color.  (See  Amber.) 

BUTTON  LAC. — See  Shellac. 

CANADA  BALSAM. — Sometimes  called  Canada  turpentine.  It 
is  derived  from  the  Abies  balsamea.  It  is  a  yellowish  or  greenish 
transparent  liquid,  completely  soluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  or  ben- 
zol. It  is  sometimes  called  Balsam  of  Fir,  but  it  does  not  really 
belong  to  the  balsams,  being  a  true  turpentine.  Strasburg  turpen- 
tine is  sometimes  substituted  for  it  commercially. .  It  is  used  in 
certain  compounds  to  prevent  sulphur  from  efflorescing.  With 
paraffine,  beeswax,  and  coloring  matters,  it  is  used  for  insulating 
colored  yarns  that  are  used  for  anunciator  and  similar  wires,  and 
it  was  also  used  by  Duncan  in  Gutta-percha  cements  for  leather. 

CANDLE  TAR. — The  residual  products  from  the  distillation  of 
animal  fats,  oils,  etc.,  are  known  as  candle  tar.  This  product  is 
sometimes  soft  and  ropy,  and  at  other  times  quite  hard.  Mixed 
with  sulphur,  it  is  said  to  produce  a  compound  having  some  of 
the  elasticity  and  other  desirable  qualities  of  vulcanized  India- 
rubber. 

CASEIN  (also  called  Caseum)  is  one  of  the  chief  constituents 
of  milk,  being  that  part  which  forms  the  curd  of  sour  milk,  and 
is  familiar  in  the  form  of  cheese.  •  A  similar  substance,  prepared 
from  peas,  beans,  lentils,  and  the  like,  is  called  vegetable  casein. 
'It  is  used  in  shower-proofing  after  a  German  formula  in  connec- 
tion with  soda,  lime,  and  acetate  of  alumina;  also,  in  cements  of 
which  Gutta-percha  is  the  base,  for  joining  small  particles  of  lea- 
ther, shavings,  etc. 

CARNAUBA  WAX  is  found  in  Brazil,  where  it  forms  as  a  coat- 
ing on  the  leaves  of  a  certain  palm  (the  Corypha  cerifera),  and  is 
removed  by  pounding  and  shaking.  It  is  very  hard  and  is  of  a 


CERAMYL— DEXTRINE.  1 19 

greenish  or  grayish  color.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  0.995,  it 
is  odorless,  and  melts  at  185°  F.  It  dissolves  completely  in  boil- 
ing alcohol,  and  is  used  on  insulated  wire  as  a  finish,  and  in  the 
manufacture  of  wax  varnishes. 

CARN  GUM. — Used  instead  of  ozocerite  as  a  finish  for  tape 
or  braids  that  cover  insulated  wire.  (See  Carnauba  Wax.) 

CERAMYL. — A  material  used  in  the  finishing  process  in  the 
manufacture  of  elastic  web.  Its  use  is  to  make  the  web  stronger, 
and  in  a  measure  to  act  as  a  size,  causing  it  to  lie  flat.  It  is  also 
said  to  add  strength  to  it.  By  the  application  of  heat,  ceramyl, 
which  comes  in  the  form  of  a  semi-solid,  is  reduced  to  a  liquid. 
In  English  practice  this  is  said  to  have  driven  out  the  use  of  glue 
in  the  dressing  of  elastic  webs.  Ceramyl  is  manufactured  in  Eng- 
land. 

CERASIN,  also  spelled  Ceresine,  is  of  a  butter  yellow  color, 
odorless,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  .918  to  .922.  It  is  used 
chiefly  in  covering  anunciator  wires  where  the  object  is  to  pre- 
serve the  colors  of  the  yarns  in  the  braiding.  (See  Ozocerite.) 

CHERRY  GUM. — A  pale  yellow  or  red  brown  gum,  coming 
from  the  bark  of  old  cherry  trees.  It  contains  35  per  cent,  of  cera- 
sme,  52  parts  of  arabicum,  and  I  to  3  per  cent,  of  ash.  This 
gum  is  chiefly  used  in  the  manufacture  and  finishing  of  fine  felt 
hats.  The  gums  on  the  market  are  of  two  qualities,  the  German, 
which  is  the  best,  and  the  Italian.  It  is  used  in  insulating  instead 
of  purified  ozocerite,  in  certain  cases  where  a  little  more  adhesive- 
ness is  required. 

COAL  TAR.— See  Tar. 

COLOPHANE. — See  Rosin. 

COLOPHONY. — See  Rosin. 

COORONGITE. — The  name  given  to  a  rubber-like  mass  found  in 
Coorong,  South  Australia.  Some  place  it  among  the  fossil  resins. 
Coorongite  is  not  soluble  in  the  ordinary  solvents  used  in  rubber 
work,  but,  after  mixing  with  India-rubber,  it  can  be  put  in  solu- 
tion. According  to  Forster,  it  vulcanizes  somewhat  as  India-rub- 
ber does.  (See  Pseudo  Rubbers.) 

DEXTRINE  is  a  sort  of  intermediate  product  between  dextrose 
and  starch.  It  is  soluble  in  cold  water,  and  is  much  used  as  a 
substitute  for  gum  arabic  in  mucilage,  as  it  has  strong  adhesive 


120  GUMS  AND  BALSAMS. 

properties.  Cooley  combined  it  with  a  little  Gutta-percha,  resin 
oil,  and  earthy  matters  in  the  production  of  what  he  called  arti- 
ficial leather.  It  is  used  also  in  a  mixture  with  plaster  of  paris, 
making  a  tough  surface  mold  for  small  experimental  rubber  work. 
DEXTROSE  is  obtained  from  starch  generally,  and  is  crystal- 
ized  glucose.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  and  has  many  commercial 
.uses.  For  example,  it  was  used  by  Hancock  as  a  sizing  for  cloth 
on  which  was  spread  rubber  in  solution,  the  Dextrose  being  there 
in  order  to  keep  the  rubber  from  sticking  to  the  cloth.  In  other 
words,  this  was  a  sort  of  cheap  calendering  process. 
EARTH  WAX. — See  Mineral  Wax. 

ELATERITE  is  also  known  as  elastic  bitumen  or  mineral  caout- 
chouc. It  appears  naturally  in  soft,  flexible  masses  of  a  brownish 
black  colors  somewhat  resembling  India-rubber.  It  is  composed 
of  85.5  per  cent  of  carbon,  and  13.3  per  cent,  of  hydrogen.  In  its 
physical  characteristics,  Elaterite  is  found  in  infinite  variety.  It 
is  sometimes  elastic  and  so  soft  as  to  adhere  to  the  fingers,  and 
sometimes  brittle  and  hard.  One  kind  of  it,  when  fresh  cut,  re- 
sembles fine  cork  both  in  texture  and  color,  and  will  rub  out  pencil 
marks.  Its  elasticity  is  due  to  its  cellular  texture,  and  to  the  mois- 
ture with  which  it  combines.  It  is  used  to  a  certain  extent  in 
insulating  compounds,  but  is  intractable  and  so  far  shows  no  spe- 
cial features  of  value  above  other  minerals  of  the  same  series.  A 
few  years  ago  a  company  was  formed  in  Colorado  which  claimed 
to  be  able  to  make  many  kinds  of  rubber  goods  from  this  product, 
alone,  but  little  has  been  heard  of  the  plan  of  late.  (See  Gilson- 
ite.) 

ELASTIC  GLUE  is  used  with  India-rubber  and  Gutta-percha  in 
shoemakers'  cements.  (See  Substitutes.) 

FRENCH  ASPHALTE. — See  Auvergne  Bitumen. 
FICHTELIT. — Occurs  in  a  peat  bed  near  Redmitz  in  the  Fich- 
telgebirge  in  Germany,  and  also  in  fossil  pines  in  the  form  of 
scales  or  flat  needles.  It  has  also  been  met  with  in  Franzenbad 
and  in  Denmark.  A  hydrocarbon  little  known,  though  mentioned 
in  certain  patented  rubber  compounds. 

FISH  GLUE. — Made  by  boiling  the  heads,  fins,  and  tails  of 
fish  by  high  heat.  It  is  generally  made  into  a  liquid  glue  by  a 
treatment  with  acetic  or  hydrochloric  acid,  whereby  its  property 


GL  UES—GELA  TINE.  1 2 1 

of  gelatinizing  is  lost.  It  would  have  a  disagreeable  odor  were 
it  not  for  the  fact  that  that  is  destroyed  by  adding  creosote~or  oil 
of  sassafras  or  something  of  that  kind.  Fish  Glue  is  used  in  a 
cement  for  cured  rubber,  in  connection  with  Gutta-percha  and 
rubber  dissolved  in  bisulphide  of  carbon.  (See  Glue.) 

GARNET  LAC. — See  Shellac. 

GILSONITE. — A  hydrocarbon  valued  for  its  elasticity.  One  of 
the  purest  of  crude  bitumens,  it  is  mined  in  the  Uncompahgre  In- 
dian reservation,  Utah,  United  States.  It  is  a  black,  tarry-looking 
substance  of  brilliant  luster.  It  is  used  for  varnish  making,  in 
paints,  and  for  insulation,  either  with  or  without  rubber,  one  well- 
known  compound  consisting  of  rubber,  linseed  oil,  and  Gilsonite. 

GLUCOSE. — The  commercial  form  is  prepared  from  starch 
usually,  as  that  is  the  cheapest  raw  material.  The  starch  paste 
being  boiled  with  mineral  acids,  dextrose,  maltose,  and  dextrine 
are  produced.  Glucose  in  this  country  is  made  entirely  of  corn- 
starch;  in  Europe,  however,  sago  starch,  rice,  and  potato  starch 
are  used.  It  is  neutral,  and  both  odorless  and  colorless.  It  is 
really  a  kind  of  sugar  that  is  with  difficulty  crystalizable,  and  it 
is  also  called  grape  sugar.  It  occurs  in  commerce  either  as  a  thick, 
sweet,  heavy  liquid,  or  as  a  white  solid  mass.  It  is  used  with  rub- 
ber glue,  sugar,  whiting,  and  glycerine  in  making  bookbinders' 
cements,  and  in  making  puncture  fluids  for  pneumatic  tires. 

GLUE. — An  impure  form  of  gelatine  obtained  from  the  horns, 
hoofs,  skins,  and  bones  of  animals.  Glue  of  good  quality  should 
be  bright  brown  or  brown  yellow  in  color,  free  from  specks,  glossy, 
perfectly  clear,  hard,  and  brittle,  should  not  become  damp  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  and  should  snap  or  break  sharply  when  being 
bent,  the  fracture  showing  a  glassy,  shining  appearance.  Used  in 
bookbinders'  cements,  in  cheap  frictions,  and  in  cheap  horse-cover 
compounds  with  rubber.  A  size  made  of  glue  was  used  by  Brock- 
edon  to  protect  fabrics  that  come  in  contact  with  the  liquid  used 
in  cold  curing.  This  was  afterwards  dissolved  off  by  an  alkaline 
solution. 

GLUGLOSS  GELATINE. — A  gelatinous  product  used  largely  in 
Amercia  in  waterproofing  fabrics.  It  is  dissolved  in  hot  water  to 
use,  and  makes  an  excellent  waterproof  sizing.  A  mixture  of  gly- 
cerine with  it  increases  its  elasticity.  It  combines  readily  with 


122  GUMS  AND  BALSAMS. 

glue,  dextrine,  or  any  such  products,  and  develops  considerable 
adhesiveness. 

GLUTEN. — A  vegetable  substance  obtained  from  wheat  and 
other  grains.  Treated  with  tannic  acid,  it  is  used  as  a  substitute 
for  Gutta-percha  under  a  formula  by  Johnson,  who  says  the  pro- 
duct can  be  vulcanized.  Another  formula  calls  for  its  mixture 
with  oil  and  sulphur,  as  a  substitute  for  Gutta-percha.  In  cements 
it  is  the  basis  of  one  for  uniting  leather  scraps,  and  is  used  with  a 
little  Gutta-percha. 

GUM  ANIME  is  a  South  American  fossil  resin  similar  to 
copal.  It  occurs  in  small  irregular  pieces  of  a  pale  yellow  color. 
Has  a  high  melting  point,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  1.028  to  1.072. 
Mixed  with  rubber  and  earthy  matters  and  dissolved  in  turpen- 
tine, it  formed  one  of  the  early  compounds  for  clothing. 

GUM  ARABIC  is  an  exudation  from  a  species  of  Acacia.  It 
is  made  up  of  clear,  or  semi-transparent  fragments,  hard  and  brit- 
tle, breaking  with  a  shining  fracture.  It  is  inodorous  and  feebly 
sweetish  to  the  taste.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.31  to  1.52,  for  dried 
gum.  It  comes  from  Africa  and  is  known  also  as  Acacia  and  Gum 
Senegal.  It  dissolves  in  hot  or  cold  water.  It  is  used  in  connec- 
tion with  plaster  of  paris  in  making  a  tougher  surface  mold  for 
small  and  experimental  rubber  work.  Enough  gum  is  added  to 
make  the  mixing  solution  about  the  thickness  of  a  thin  syrup. 
It  is  largely  used  in  cements.  It  is  also  used  in  certain  shower- 
proof compounds,  and  in  paste  blackings  made  of  caoutchouc  oil, 
vinegar,  molasses,  and  boneblack. 

GUM  AMMONIACUM. — Exclusively  obtained  from  Persia  as 
tears,  or  aggregated  masses,  of  a  peculiar  smell  and  a  taste  slightly 
sweetish,  bitter,  and  somewhat  acrid.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.207. 
Used  in  solutions  for  pressed  leather  cuttings  and  fibrous  wastes. 
Ten  parts  of  this  gum  mixed  with  20  or  25  parts  of  Gutta-percha 
form  a  cement  possessing  both  elasticity  and  solidity,  and  is  tho- 
roughly waterproof,  used  for  filling  cracks  in  horses'  hoofs.  Also 
used  with  Gutta-percha,  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  caseum  or  casein, 
for  sticking  together  small  particles  of  any  dry  matter  in  the  pro- 
duction of  artificial  leather. 

GUM  BENZOIN. — Occurs  in  lumps  of  yellowish  brown  tears, 
stuck  together  and  more  or  less  mottled  from  the  white  inside  the 


GUM  BENZOIN— GUM  DAMMAR.  123 

tears.  Its  specific  gravity  is  from  1.063  to  1.092.  Of  an  agree- 
able balsamic  odor  and  very  little  taste,  but  irritating  when 
chewed  for  some  time.  Used  in  linseed  oil  proofings,  presumably 
to  kill  odor;  also  in  certain  Gutta-percha  and  India-rubber  com- 
pounds for  disguising  the  odors.  Four  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of 
the  mass  is  said  to  be  sufficient  to  make  the  odor  an  agreeable  one. 
According  to  Forster,  a  little  of  it  mixed  with  Gutta-percha 
greatly  improves  the  quality. 

GUM  ASPHALTUM. — Refined  natural  bitumen,  also  called 
litho-carbon.  Is  found  in  Texas  and  at  one  time  was  exploited  as 
a  substitute  for  rubber.  (See  Litho-Carbon.) 

GUM  CAMPHOR. — The  white  transparent  substance  known  by 
this  name  is  obtained  from  Japan  and  the  island  of  Formosa.  It 
is  really  an  oxygenated  essential  oil.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.985. 
Sparingly  soluble  in  water,  and  very  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
acetic  acid,  and  hydrocarbons  or  volatile  oils.  Is  largely  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  celluloid.  Gum  Camphor  is  also  used  in  com- 
pounds of  the  substitute  order  like  Textiloid,  Kerite,  etc.  Was 
also  the  basis  of  several  remarkable  compounds  known  as  Hee- 
venoid  (which  see). 

GUM  COPAL. — Hard  Copal  is  a  fossil  resin  obtained  from  the 
East  Indies,  South  America,  and  the  eastern  and  western  coasts 
of  Africa.  It  occurs  commercially  in  roundish,  irregular  pieces, 
having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.045  to  1.139.  It  is  insoluble  in 
alcohol,  partially  soluble  in  ether,  and  slightly  so  in  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. Soft  Copal  is  obtained  from  living  trees  in  New  Zealand, 
the  Philippine  islands,  Java,  and  Sumatra.  Used  with  shellac, 
asphaltum,  and  arsenate  of  potash  for  waterproofing  leather ;  also 
in  cements,  in  proofing  compounds,  and  in  varnishes  in  connec- 
tion with  India-rubber,  lead,  alum,  and  other  ingredients  dissolved 
in  spirits  of  turpentine. 

GUM  DAMMAR  is  derived  from  the  Amboyna  pine,  growing 
in  the  Malay  peninsula,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo.  The  resin  exudes 
in  tears  and  is  collected  after  it  has  dried.  It  makes  a  very  trans- 
parent varnish,  the  gum  being  soluble  in  benzine,  essential  oils, 
and  to  a  certain  extent  in  alcohol.  Used  in  artificial  leather  com- 
pounds, and  with  rubber,  asphalt,  and  fish  oil  for  waterproofing 
leather.  It  is  quite  largely  used  in  rubber  cements. 


124  GUMS  AND  BALSAMS. 

GUM  ELEMI  comes  from  the  Philippine  islands,  and  is  a  rosin 
obtained  from  certain  trees  there.  It  varies  from  white  to  gray 
in  color,  and  is  quite  soft  and  very  tough.  Alcohol  and  other 
solvents  readily  dissolve  it,  and  its  office  usually  is  to  give  tough- 
ness to  varnishes  in  which  are  harder  resins.  Used  in  connection 
with  India-rubber  and  benzine  in  the  production  of  puncture 
fluids.  (See  Manila  Gum.) 

GUM  EUPHORBIUM  appears  in  the  market  in  the  shape  of  tears 
of  irregular  shape,  varying  in  size  from  a  small  pea  to  i^  inches 
in  length.  Of  a  dirty  gray  or  yellowish  color,  and  very  largely 
mixed  with  impurities.  Must  not  be  confused  with  Gum  Euphor- 
bia (which  see.) 

GUM  FRANKINCENSE. — Also  called  Olibanum   (which  see.) 

GUM  GAMBOGE. — The  best  is  found  in  commerce  in  cylindri- 
cal rolls  of  a  dull  orange  red  color.  Another  form  is  that  of  lumps 
or  cakes.  Its  powder  is  bright  yellow  and  its  taste  very  acrid,  but 
it  has  no  smell.  It  is  derived  from  a  tree  which  is  a  native  of 
Cochin  China  and  Siam.  Is  used  chiefly  as  a  pigment.  It  is  the 
basis  of  a  general  cement  in  which  is  also  found  rubber,  alum,  and 
burnt  sugar,  and  in  another  is  used  with  rubber,  white  lead,  gum 
benzoin,  alum,  sugar,  and  sulphur,  for  cementing  vulcanized 
rubber. 

GUM  LINI. — A  gum  made  from  linseed,  often  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  gum  arabic.  The  seeds  are  first  boiled  in  water  for  an 
hour,  the  resulting  thick  mass  filtered,  and  then  treated  with  twice 
its  volume  of  90  per  cent,  spirits  of  wine.  A  flocculent  white 
precipitate  separates,  from  which  the  dilute  spirit  can  readily  be 
decanted.  The  gum  is  clear,  grey  brown,  fragile,  and  dissolves 
in  water.  Two  grams  in  30  grams  of  oil  is  almost  identical  with 
an  emulsion  of  gum  arabic.  In  connection  with  coloring  matters  is 
the  basis  for  the  Knowlton  patented  waterproofing  process. 

GUM  TRAGACANTH  is  an  exudation  which  comes  in  the  form 
of  translucent  plates  of  a  dull  white,  which  water  swells  and  partly 
dissolves.  It  is  often  used  in  mucilage  in  place  of  gum  arabic. 
The  gum  comes  from  the  Levant  from  the  Astragalus  gummifer. 
Has  been  used  in  connection  with  Gutta-percha  for  making  dental 
plates  that  are  soft  and  adhesive  to  the  membranes  and  that  will 
not  rot  or  deteriorate. 


GUM  TRAGASOL— ISINGLASS.  125 

GUM  LAC. — See  Shellac. 

GUM  TRAGASOL. — This  is  a  gum  produced  from  the  kernels 
of  the  Ceratonia  siliqua.  The  use  of  this  gum  as  a  solvent  for 
India-rubber,  Gutta-percha,  or  celluloid  has  been  patented  in  Eng- 
land. A  mixture  of  25  parts  of  dissolved  India-rubber,  75  parts 
of  strong  gum  solution,  with  the  addition  of  i  part  of  carbolic 
acid  to  500  parts  of  the  mixture,  makes  a  cement  for  wood,  and 
a  preservative  paint  against  insects  and  vermin. 

GUM  JUNIPER  is  the  gum  known  as  sandarac,  obtained  from 
an  evergreen  growing  in  northern  Africa.  It  occurs  in  small, 
light-colored  grains,  with  a  slightly  bitter  taste.  It  is  soluble  in 
turpentine  oil  and  alcohol.  Is  used  as  an  assistant  in  making  per- 
oxide substitutes.  Mixed  with  rubber  and  earthy  matters  and 
dissolved  in  turpentine,  it  was  one  of  the  early  compounds  for 
clothing. 

GUM  OLIBANUM. — The  frankincense  of  the  ancients,  obtain- 
ed chiefly  from  Asia  and  Africa.  It  occurs  in  yellowish,  somewhat 
translucent  tears,  with  a  balsam-like  resinous  smell,  and  an  acrid 
aromatic  taste.  Sometimes  called  Gum  Thus.  It  is  largely  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  porous  plasters. 

GUM  THUS. — A  name  for  gum  turpentine,  and  rarely  for 
olibanum.  Used  with  rubber  and  Japan  for  waterproofing  lea- 
ther. 

GUM  TURPENTINE. — Turpentine  hardened  by  exposure  to 
the  air.  (See  Turpentine.) 

HELENITE. — Another  name  for  fossil  rubber  or  Elaterite 
(which  see.) 

ISINGLASS. — A  substance  prepared  from  the  swimming  blad- 
ders of  certain  fish.  It  is  white  and  glistening,  occurring  in  fibers 
or  threads.  The  best  is  known  as  Russian,  and  comes  from  Astra- 
chan.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.2.  On  boiling  isinglass  it  is  con- 
verted into  a  very  pure  form  of  glue.  Isinglass  is  used  in  quick 
drying  cements  with  India-rubber,  chloroform  being  the  solvent. 

IDRIALIN  (!DRIALIT). — A  rare  hydrocarbon  found  in  Idria,  a 
province  of  Austra,  where  it  occurs  with  hepatic  cinnabar.  A 
similar  body  is  obtained  in  the  distillation  of  amber.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  1.4  to  1.6.  Mentioned  in  certain  rubber  formulas  to 
assist  the  insulating  qualities  of  compounds. 


126  GUMS  AND  BALSAMS. 

KAURI  GUM. — An  amber-like  substance  varying  from  a  soft 
cream  white  to  an  amber  color.  It  comes  from  New  Zealand,  and 
is  also  known  as  Australian  dammar.  The  lighter  colored  Kauri 
comes  from  living  trees,  but  much  of  the  darker  is  a  fossil  resin. 
It  is  cheaper  than  copal  and  largely  used  in  varnishes.  Kauri 
Gum,  in  connection  with  rubber  gum  and  pitch,  is  used  for  treat- 
ing yarns  used  in  insulated  wire  coverings.  Parkes  added  it  to 
rubber  goods  where  the  surface  was  to  be  printed  upon  after  cur- 
ing. One  pound  of  Kauri,  8  pounds  of  Gutta-percha,  and  I  pound 
of  milk  of  sulphur  formed  Richard's  covering  for  insulated  wire. 

LAC. — See  Shellac. 

LITHO-CARBON. — A  kind  of  asphalt  large  deposits  of  which 
are  found  in  the  state  of  Texas.  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that 
it  would  supersede  India-rubber,  and  a  company  was  formed  with 
the  idea  of  manufacturing  goods  from  it.  This  was  in  1892,  and 
India-rubber  is  still  used.  The  chemical  composition  of  Litho- 
Carbon  is  88.23  carbon,  11.59  hydrogen,  .06  oxygen,  a  trace  of 
sulphur.  Litho-Carbon  is  jet  black  in  color,  is  flexible  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  and  is  quite  tough.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about 
1.028.  It  is  said  to  be  soluble  in  naphtha,  benzol,  bisulphide  of 
carbon,  etc.  It  will  stand  a  temperature  of  600°  F.,  without  giv- 
ing off  its  associate  products.  It  resists  alkalies  and  acids,  with 
the  exception  of  concentrated  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids.  Its  man- 
ufacture was  patented.  Used  with  Gutta-percha  and  shellac  it 
makes  an  excellent  insulator. 

MANILA  GUM. — See  Gum  Elemi. 

MASTIC. — A  resin  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  It 
occurs  in  tears  of  a  pale  yellow,  is  brittle,  and  of  a  faint  balsamic 
odor.  It  dissolves  in  acetone,  turpentine  oil,  and  alcohol,  and  is 
largely  used  in  varnish.  The  residue  obtained  in  the  purifying 
of  mineral  asphalt  is  also  called  mastic.  It  is  used  in  general  rub- 
ber cements  for  joining  stoneware,  earthenware,  leather,  etc.  One 
of  special  value  calls  for  10  parts  of  mastic  to  I  part  of  India- 
rubber,  dissolved  in  chloroform,  and  makes  an  excellent  cement 
for  fastening  letters  to  glass.  The  gum  also  appears  in  many  old 
fashioned  compounds. 

MENTHOL  is  obtained  from  the  oil  of  peppermint  coming  from 
Japan  and  China,  or  from  the  oil  of  spearmint  manufactured  in 


MENTHOL— OLEO  RESINS.  127 

the  United  States.  Its  melting  point  is  about  108°  to  110°  F.,  and 
it  is  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  freely  in  alcohol.  It-is-often 
used  in  medicinal  plasters  which  have  rubber  for  a  base. 

MINERAL  INDIA-RUBBER  ASPHALT  is  the  name  of  a  material 
composed  of  refuse  tar  produced  during  the  refining  process  of 
tar  by  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  black,  like  ordinary  asphalt,  and  quite 
elastic.  It  is  an  excellent  non-conductor  of  electricity,  and  is  not 
assailed  by  acids  or  alkalies.  In  a  naphtha  solution,  it  yields  a 
waterproof  varnish  for  metallic  objects,  and  is  used  in  rubber  com- 
pounding in  place  of  asphalt. 

MINERAL  TALLOW,  also  called  Hatchetine,  is  a  substance 
found  in  Siberia,  Germany,  and  Great  Britain.  It  is  an  earth  wax 
that  is  soft,  flexible,  and  runs  from  yellow  to  yellowish  white. 
It  has  no  smell,  and  melts  at  from  115°  to  170°  F.  It  is  com- 
posed of  14  hydrogen  and  86  carbon.  Mineral  Tallow  is  used 
sometimes  in  place  of  earth  waxes  in  insulated  wire  work,  and  has 
been  used  in  paste  blackings  in  connection  with  India-rubber. 

MINERAL  WAX. — A  term  applied  to  several  waxy-looking 
hydrocarbons  found  as  mineral  deposits,  such  as  neft  gil  (naph- 
tadil),  ozocerite,  and  earth  wax.  It  is  found  in  Austria,  and  in 
the  southern  part  of  Russia,  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  sea.  In 
the  United  States  it  occurs  largely  in  Texas  and  Utah.  Used 
chiefly  in  insulating  compounds.  (See  Ozocerite.) 

MYRRH  exudes  from  the  bark  of  a  tree  which  grows  in  Ara- 
bia, in  yellow  drops  that  are  quite  oily  at  first,  but  which  thicken 
and  become  hard  and  of  a  dark  color.  It  appears  in  commerce  in 
either  grains,  or  tears,  or  in  pieces  of  various  sizes  and  irregular 
form,  the  color  being  red,  reddish  brown,  or  yellow.  Its  taste 
is  bitter  and  aromatic,  and  its  smell  balsamic.  The  best  gum  is 
known  as  Turkey  Myrrh.  It  is  used  with  rubber,  sulphur,  and 
salycilic  acid  in  complexion  masks. 

NATURAL  PITCH  is  the  name  given  to  such  kinds  of  pitch  as 
are  not  manufactured,  such  as  asphalt,  bitumen,  etc. — that  is, 
pitch  of  a  mineral  origin,  except  that  from  coal  or  shale.  (See 
Asphalt.) 

OLEO  RESINS. — A  resin  that  contains  a  certain  amount  of  the 
essential  oil  of  the  plant  from  which  it  exudes  is  so  called.  Chief 
among  the  Oleo  Resins  are  certain  which  have  a  pungent  taste 
and  a  peculiar,  and  often  a  pleasant  odor,  known  as  balsams. 


128  GUMS  AND  BALSAMS. 

OZOCERITE. — A  waxy  hydrocarbon  occurring  in  Austria, 
southern  Russia,  and  the  United  States.  It  is  also  known  as  earth 
wax.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.9  to  0.95,  and  it  is  about  as  hard  as 
talc.  Chemically,  it  consists  of  hydrogen  13.75  and  carbon  86.25, 
while  its  melting  point  extends  from  140°  F.  to  170°  F.  It  is  often 
found  adulterated  with  asphalt  and  sometimes  with  Burgundy 
pitch.  Purified  Ozocerite  is  known  as  ceresine.  To  make  this, 
the  crude  material  is  treated  with  fuming  sulphuric  acid,  and  then 
filtered  through  charcoal.  Thus  prepared  it  is  of  a  pale  yellow 
color,  the  melting  point  ranging  from  61°  to  78°  C.  It  has  almost 
wholly  driven  out  Stockholm  tar  as  a  protection  for  wires  insu- 
lated with  Gutta-percha,  when  placed  under  ground.  It  improves 
the  insulation,  but  in  spite  of  common  belief  to  the  contrary,  does 
not  preserve  textile  fabrics.  The  best  compound  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  insulation  on  wire  consists  of  3  parts  of  Ozocerite  to 
i  part  of  Stockholm  tar.  It  is  an  insulator  of  high  quality,  and 
while  it  is  in  some  ways  intractable,  its  wax-like  nature  allows  it 
to  combine  with  other  insulators  or  with  textiles.  It  is  also  used 
as  a  water-repellent  in  fabrics,  the  gum  being  volatilized  by  heat, 
and  the  fumes  passed  through  the  cloth.  As  a  surface  covering 
for  tapes  or  braid,  it  is  often  employed  and  is  better  than  other 
gums,  as  it  takes  a  fine  polish  from  the  polishing  machine.  The 
basis  of  Henley's  system  of  curing  India-rubber  core  is  melted 
Ozocerite,  which  is  used  under  pressure  to  remove  all  the  mois- 
ture, being  afterward  heated  in  hot  Ozocerite,  which  stops  up  the 
pores.  Ozocerite,  mixed  with  India-rubber,  is  also  the  basis  of 
the  India-rubber  compound  called  nigrite.  It  mixes,  however, 
with  difficulty  with  India-rubber,  which  is  an  objection  to  many 
proposed  uses  of  it.  It  also  has  a  mildly  deterious  effect  on  it. 

OZOCERINE  is  a  vaseline-like  substance  prepared  from  ozocer- 
ite. There  is  also  prepared  from  crude  ozocerite  a  valuable  black 
wax  which,  when  fused  with  India-rubber,  makes  an  excellent 
electric  insulating  material.  This  wax  was  recognized  by  a  lec- 
turer before  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry  as  the  basis  of  the 
insulation  known  as  Okonite. 

PARAFFINE. — A  white  waxy-looking  body  obtained  from 
certain  tars  by  distillation.  It  is  tasteless,  inodorous,  harder  than 
tallow,  but  softer  than  wax.  Its  specific  gravity  is  .877.  It  is 


PARAFFINE— PITCH.  129 

also  obtained  from  ozocerite  or  earth  wax.  Its  melting  point 
varies  with  the  source  it  is  obtained  from.  It  is  insoluble  in  water 
and  nearly  so  in  boiling  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  ether,  oil  of  tur- 
pentine, oil  of  olives,  benzol,  and  bisulphide  of  carbon.  It  is  usu- 
ally very  free  from  water,  and  not  liable  to  absorb  it.  It  has  been 
used  as  a  waterproofing  mixture  and  is  a  good  insulator.  A  very 
widely  diffused  bit  of  newspaper  advice  has  been  that  to  preserve 
rubber  goods  they  should  be  dipped  in  a  bath  of  melted  paraffine 
and  dried  then  in  a  hot  room.  It  has  not  been  proved  to  be  of  any 
advantage,  however.  Experts  in  the  rubber  trade  claim  that  such 
a  course  would  seriously  injure  the  elasticity  and  life  of  the  rub- 
ber. When  gossamer  clothing  was  manufactured  in  large  quan- 
tities, the  surface  of  the  goods  before  solarization  was  covered 
with  a  thin  coat  of  paraffine,  which  gave  it  a  peculiar  shade  until 
the  solarization  was  completed,  when  all  traces  of  the  paraffine 
seemed  to  disappear.  The  insulating  capacity  of  rubber  to  which 
paraffine  has  been  added  is  quite  remarkable,  but  at  the  same  time 
it  lessens  the  hardness  of  the  rubber  to  a  marked  degree.  Rubber 
dissolved  in  Paraffine  wax  forms  a  curious  compound  which  has 
been  used  in  insulation.  Paraffine  is  used  in  the  artificial  gums 
like  Parkesine  and  insulite;  also  with  cottonseed  oil  and  resin  for 
cheap  Brattice  cloth,  and  in  cheap  proofing  compounds.  It  is  not 
a  great  favorite  as  an  insulator,  as  it  shrinks  in  cooling,  causing 
cracks.  Paraffine  tapes  are  also  easily  destroyed  through  the 
presence  of  free  acid.  It  was  formerly  used  largely  in  covering 
anunciator  wires,  but  as  it  was  found  to  absorb  and  retain  water, 
its  use  was  given  up,  and  its  place  taken  by  a  compound  of  Par- 
affine, ceresin,  and  resin. 

PITCH  is  the  black  residue  that  remains  after  the  distilling 
of  wood  tar.  Varieties  are  also  obtained  from  coal  tar 
and  from  bone  tar.  Wood  pitch,  however,  has  a  toughness 
which  the  others  do  not  possess.  Pitch  was  used  very  early  in 
considerable  quantities  in  hard-rubber  compounds.  Goodyear,  for 
example,  used  considerable  of  it  in  hard  compounds  for  coating 
metal,  the  rest  of  the  compound  consisting  chiefly  of  rubber  and 
sulphur.  It  is  almost  the  only  organic  substance  which  largely 
increases  the  resiliency  of  India-rubber.  It  is  largely  used  in 
cements,  and  also  in  many  rubber  compounds.  Equal  parts  of 


1 30  GUMS  AND  BALSAMS. 

pitch  and  Gutta-percha  make  a  tire  cement  for  fastening  to  the 
rims,  known  as  "Davy's  Universal  Cement."  It  is  used  with 
Gutta-percha  in  shoemakers'  wax,  and  also  in  certain  proofing 
compounds.  Wood  cements  made  of  Gutta-percha  as  a  rule  con- 
tain a  certain  amount  of  Pitch.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  Fenton's  artificial  rubber. 

RESINS. — The  term  given  to  a  number  of  complex  bodies, 
generally  the  hardened  exudation  of  sap  from  trees.  Chemically 
a  resin  is  the  substance  obtained  by  the  gradual  oxidation  of  an 
essential  oil.  The  specific  gravity  ranges  between  1.02  and  1.2. 
Resins  are  divided  as  a  rule  into  three  classes — hard,  soft,  and 
gum  resins.  The  former  at  ordinary  temperatures  are  solid  and 
quite  brittle.  They  contain  little  or  no  essential  oil,  and  are  easily 
pulverized.  Shellac  and  sandarac  are  good  examples  of  this  kind, 
and  soft  resins  are  usually  called  balsams,  and  are  either  semi- 
fluid, or  soft  enough  to  be  molded  by  hand.  They  are  really  mix- 
tures of  hard  resins,  and  the  essential  oils  found  in  the  plant  from 
which  they  come.  On  exposure  to  the  air  they  become  in  time 
hard  resins.  Of  this  class  are  balsam  of  storax,  tolu  balsam,  etc. 
Gum  resins  are  the  solidified  milky  juices  of  certain  plants.  They 
consist  of  a  mixture  of  resins,  essential  oils,  and  a  considerable 
proportion  of  gum.  These  are,  for  example,  gum  euphorbium, 
galbanum,  and  to  this  class  also  belong  India-rubber  and  Gutta- 
percha.  Most  of  the  fossil  gums,  such  as  copal,  are  resins  whose 
physical  characteristics  have  been  changed  by  their  having  been 
buried  for  a  long  time  in  the  earth.  These  fossil  resins  are  coun- 
terfeited to  an  extent  by  treating  ordinary  resin  with  lime  which 
raises  its  melting  point  considerably. 

RETINITE. — Also  known  as  Retin  Asphalt.  It  is  a  fossil  resin 
found  in  brown  coal.  It  is  found  in  roundish  masses  of  a  yellow 
brown  or  reddish  color,  is  quite  inflammable  and  readily  dissolves 
in  alcohol.  At  present  it  is  somewhat  rare,  but  if  it  ever  should 
become  common,  it  would  undoubtedly  find  a  place  in  rubber 
compounding.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.07  to  1.35. 

ROSIN  is  made  from  common  turpentine,  which  is  distilled 
in  water  yielding  nearly  one-fourth  its  weight  of  essential  oil, 
the  residue  in  the  retort  consisting  of  common  rosin.  Rosin  was 
olso  very  generally  called  colophony,  a  name  now  practically  obso- 


ROSIN— SHELLAC.  131 

lete.  There  are  two  varieties  of  rosin  in  common  use,  thejbrpwn 
and  the  white.  The  first  named  is  brittle,  solid,  and  of  an  amber 
color,  and  comes  from  the  Norway  spruce  fir.  The  white  rosin  is 
obtained  from  the  pine  and  is  known  as  galipot.  Rosin  dissolves 
very  freely  in  alkaline  solutions,  which  allows  of  its  use  in  soaps. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  1.08.  There  are  three  grades  commonly  on 
the  market,  which  are  called  virgin,  yellow  dip,  and  hard.  It  is 
used  in  a  great  variety  of  rubber  compounds,  its  chief  uses  being 
in  frictions,  dry  heat  varnishes,  cements,  and  puncture  fluids. 
Almost  all  lines  of  rubber  manufacture  use  a  certain  amount  of  it 
at  times.  Only  a  small  proportion  of  it  can  be  used  in  rubber 
compounding,  its  office  being  usually  that  of  the  sticker.  A  large 
amount  of  it  induces  surface  cracking,  and  often  a  decided  bloom- 
ing of  the  sulphur.  It  is  also  used  in  waterproof  solutions  in  con- 
junction with  spermaceti,  India-rubber,  and  paraffine  wax.  Mixed 
with  boiling  oil,  it  has  been  applied  to  Gutta-percha  articles  to  give 
them  a  Japan-like  luster,  and  is  also  important  in  Gutta-percha 
glue,  which  is  compounded  of  Gutta-percha,  powdered  glass,  lith- 
arge, and  Rosin.  A  very  large  use  for  it  is  in  the  rubber  channel 
cements  that  are  sold  to  leather  shoe  manufacturers. 

SANDARAC. — Also  known  as  Gum  Juniper  (which  see.) 

SEEDLAC. — See  Shellac. 

SHELLAC,  STICKLAC,  SEEDLAC,  GUMLAC. — All  these  are  dif- 
ferent names  for  the  same  thing  or  different  stages  of  its  prepara- 
tion. It  is  the  exudation  formed  on  several  sorts  of  trees  growing 
in  the  East  Indies,  but  is  chiefly  produced  from  the  banyan  tree, 
the  exudation  coming  from  a  scale  shaped  insect  known  as  the 
Coccus  lacca,  the  female  fixing  herself  to  the  bark  and  exuding 
the  resinous  substance  from  her  body.  In  addition  to  the  East 
Indian  product  there  is  what  is  known  as  Mexican  lac,  which  ex- 
udes from  the  Croton  draco.  Sticklac  is  the  resin  as  taken  from  the 
tree.  Sedlac  consists  of  fragments  broken  from  the  twigs  and  partly 
exhausted  by  water.  Shellac  is  prepared  by  melting  Stick  or  Seed- 
lac,  straining,  and  pouring  upon  a  flat  surface  to  harden.  It  is 
then  washed,  dried,  melted,  roughly  refined,  and  sent  to  market, 
or  it  is  poured  into  molds  to  harden  and  is  known  as  Button  or 
Garnet  lac.  The  specific  gravity  of  Lac  is  about  1.139.  It  is  par- 
tially soluble  in  alcohol,  turpentine,  chloroform,  and  ether,  and 


132  GUMS  AND  RESINS. 

is  completely  soluble  in  caustic  alkalies  and  borax  solutions.  Shel- 
lac was  formerly  used  very  generally  in  rubber  manufacture  in 
surface  goods,  and  particularly  in  solarized  goods  in  small  pro- 
portions. It  has  a  specific  use  to-day  in  the  production  of  water 
varnishes  for  surface  goods.  It  is  also  a  constituent  in  the  pro- 
duction of  certain  compounds  in  hard  rubber,  and  particularly 
the  semi-hard  varieties,  being  used  to  the  extent  of  20  per  cent, 
of  the  amount  of  gum.  Although  quite  brittle,  it  seems  to  impart 
a  certain  elasticity  to  the  product.  The  maximum  use  of  Shellac 
in  a  hard-rubber  compound,  according  to  Hoffer,  is  88  parts  of 
India-rubber,  50  parts  of  Shellac,  12  parts  of  sulphur.  It  is  also 
used  in  certain  of  the  Jenkins  patented  packings  to  the  extent  of 
10  to  25  per  cent,  of  the  amount  of  rubber,  where  it  is  said  to 
preserve  the  compound  from  the  effects  of  coal  oil,  steam,  or  hot 
water.  It  is  also  used  in  many  cements  both  with  and  without 
India-rubber,  one  formula  for  marine  glue  being :  20  parts  of  shel- 
lac, 12  parts  of  benzol,  and  I  part  of  India-rubber  mixed  with 
heat.  Dissolved  in  10  parts  of  strong  aqua-ammonia,  it  forms  a 
varnish  for  rubber  goods,  and  is  also  used  as  a  solution  for  re- 
varnishing  old  rubber  shoes.  Used  with  carburet  of  iron  and 
bisulphide  of  mercury  as  a  cement  for  card  clothing,  with  rubber 
and  Gutta-percha  for  attaching  shoes  to  horses,  in  English  "ale 
cement,"  and  in  certain  proofing  compounds. 

SIZE. — A  weak  solution  of  glue,  sometimes  used  in  shower- 
proof compounds  and  cements.  The  name  Size  is  also  often  ap- 
plied to  any  thin  viscous  substance,  as  for  instance,  gilders'  var- 
nish. In  rubber  practice,  however,  the  glue  Size  is  what  is 
ordinarily  employed.  It  is  also  used  in  preparing  a  perfectly 
smooth  cloth  upon  which  rubber  is  to  be  calendered,  and  from 
which  it  is  stripped  before  the  making  up.  (See  Glue  and  Gela- 
tine.) 

SPRUCE  GUM  is  used  with  chicle  in  the  production  of  chew- 
ing gums.  Melted  spruce  gum  or  rosin  is  known  as  Burgundy 
pitch  (which  see.) 

STEARINE. — A  white  waxy-looking  body  obtained  from  fats. 
— chiefly  tallow  and  palm  oil.  When  made  from  tallow  it  is 
called  pressed  tallow  or  tallow  Stearine,  which  is  the  solid  part 
obtained  from  the  heating  of  suet  fat  and  the  removal  of  the 


STEARINE  PITCH— TAR  133 

liquid  part  which  is  oleomargarine.  Tallow  Stearine  is  very 
largely  used  in  candle  making,  where  is  found  saponified  Stearine, 
distilled  Stearine,  and  distilled  grease  Stearine.  This  latter  con- 
tains considerable  cholestrol  and  differs  from  commercial  stearic 
acid  or  Stearine  chiefly  in  its  physical  structure.  Stearine  is  used 
in  proofing  compounds,  in  rubber  blackings  and  in  compounds 
containing  resins.  It  has  been  suggested  that  a  small  proportion 
of  Stearine  in  certain  rubber  compounds  that  contain  low  grades 
of  rubber  which  in  themselves  have  large  proportions  of  resin, 
lias  a  decided  value  in  preventing  oxidization.  Used  in  proofing 
compounds,  rubber  blackings,  and  compounds  containing  resins. 

STEARINE  PITCH. — The  brown  tarry  residue  left  in  the  still 
during  the  process  of  refining  tallow  and  fat.  Used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  certain  packings  that  contain  no  rubber.  Stearine 
Pitch  is  also  used  as  a  lubricant  for  bearings  that  have  a  ten- 
dency_to  heat. 

STICK  LAC. — See  Shellac. 

STOCKHOLM  TAR  is  used  in  black  cements  of  the  marine  glue 
class,  and  is  also  used  in  rubber  compounding,  its  office  being  to 
assist  in  the  mixing  of  dry  compounds,  and  as  a  binding  material 
for  sulphur  in  the  dry  heat  cure.  Also  used  in  manganese  cements 
and  in  cement's  to  fasten  tiles  to  floors.  (See  Tar.) 

SPERMACETI. — A  peculiar  fatty  concrete  substance  obtained 
from  the  head  of  the  sperm  whale.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.943, 
and  it  is  fusible  at  112°  F.  Insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  hot 
alcohol,  ether,  and  oil  of  turpentine,  but  redeposited  as  the  liquids 
cool.  Was  formerly  used  in  certain  waterproofing  compositions. 

SLUDGE  OIL  RESIN. — A  heavy  gummy  residue  from  the  waste 
of  superphosphate  factories.  Has  been  used  with  rubber  in  mak- 
ing Japan  varnishes. 

TAR. — This  substance  is  derived  from  the  animal,  vegetable, 
and  mineral  kingdoms.  From  the  first,  by  the  destructive  distillation 
of  bones,  is  produced  what  is  known  as  "Dippel's  oil";  from  the 
second,  by  the  distillation  of  pine  woods,  the  product  is  known 
as  pine  tar  or  Stockholm  tar ;  and  from  the  third,  by  the  distilla- 
tion of  coal,  is  produced  coal  tar.  Of  the  three,  coal  tar  is  the 
most  used  in  rubber  work,  its  office  being  to  help  carry  adulterants 
in  dry  mixing  and  to  keep  the  sulphur  from  blooming  after  vul- 


134  GUMS  AND  BALSAMS. 

canization.  It  is  used  chiefly  in  dry  heat  work.  Goodyear  dis- 
covered early  that  very  large  quantities  of  boiled  tar  could  be  used 
in  connection  with  India-rubber  and  sulphur  without  injuring  the 
quality  of  the  gum,  and  it  has  been  very  generally  used  since  his 
time. 

TRINIDAD  ASPHALT  is  obtained  from  the  pitch  lakes  of  the 
island  of  Trinidad.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.2,  and  it  is  somewhat 
soluble  in  alcohol,  while  Persian  naphtha,  oil  of  turpentine,  benzol, 
and  benzoline  readily  dissolve  it.  (See  Asphalt.) 

TOLU  BALSAM  is  derived  from  a  tree  found  on  the  mountains 
of  Tolu,  and  the  banks  of  the  Magdalena  river,  in  Colombia.  It 
is  very  similar  to  balsam  of  Peru.  It  sometimes  appears  in  com- 
merce in  dry  friable  fragments,  the  newly  imported  gum  being 
soft  and  tenacious.  It  has  a  very  fragrant  odor,  and  a  medicinal 
and  tonic  effect.  Tolu  Balsam  is  used  with  paraffine  wax  and 
chicle  in  chewing  gum  compounds. 

TURPENTINE. — This  is  a  semi-solid  resin,  which  comes  from 
various  species  of  pine  as  a  rule.  The  chief  commercial  varieties 
are  common  turpentine,  which  comes  from  the  Pinus  abies;  Venice 
turpentine,  from  the  larch ;  Bordeaux  turpentine,  from  the  Pinus 
maritima,  and  Chian  turpentine,  from  the  Pistacia  lentiscus.  Of 
these  the  Venice  turpentine  is  said  to  be  the  best.  It  is  of  a  pale 
yellow  color,  transparent,  has  a  bitter  taste,  but  a  balsamic  odor. 
Used  instead  of  rosin  in  many  compounds. 

VEGETABLE  PITCH. — The  residue  left  after  distilling  the  tar 
made  from  wood  of  various  trees.  Called  vegetable  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  mineral  pitch  which  is  derived  from  coal.  (See 
Pitch.) 

XANTHORRHOEA  GUM  is  somewhat  similar  to  shellac,  is 
abundantly  produced  in  the  Australian  colonies,  and  sometimes 
used  in  the  compounding  of  ebonite.  Xanthorrhoea  Gum.  is  also 
sometimes  known  as  gum  acaroides,  and  is  produced  from  the 
Australian  grass  tree. 

XYLOIDIN. — An  artificial  gum  much  resembling  pyroxylin 
obtained  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  starch. 

XYLONITE. — See  Zvlonite. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

PIGMENTS  AND  PROCESSES  USED  IN  COLORING  INDIA-RUBBER. 

MOST  of  the  India-rubber  goods  manufactured  to-day  are 
black,  this  color,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  being  produced  in  a  mea- 
sure by  the  color  of  the  rubber,  together  with  the  leads  and  other 
ingredients,  most  of  which  darken  during  vulcanization.  The 
next  prominent  color,  from  a  rubber  standpoint,  is  white,  pro- 
duced by  either  an  oxide  or  sulphide  of  zinc.  Next  to  this  range 
the  yellows  and  reels,  produced  by  sulphide  of  antimony  and  ver- 
milion. 

So  many  colors  are  unstable  when  brought  in  contact  with 
sulphur  during  the  heat  of  vulcanization,  and  it  is  so  difficult  to 
get  good  effects,  that  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  beautiful  colors 
in  India-rubber  will  ever  become  common.  There  are  various 
methods  used  for  changing  the  natural  color  of  India-rubber.  The 
usual  way  is  by  incorporating,  by  mechanical  mixture,  earthy  pig- 
ments or  metallic  oxides  or  sulphides,  or  vegetable  coloring  mat- 
ters, which,  by  their  covering  property  and  strength,  give  to  the 
India-rubber  their  own  particular  shade.  There  are  other  me- 
thods, however.  For  example,  there  have  been  produced  anilines 
soluble  in  benzine,  that  are  used  for  surface  work,  such  coloring 
being  really  an  elastic  enamel.  Toys  and  minor  articles  that  are 
ornamented  in  very  bright  colors,  however,  are  generally  painted 
over  after  vulcanization,  but  paint  is  not  durable,  nor  does  it  long 
remain  beautiful. 

While  it  is  claimed  ordinarily  that  it  is  impossible  to  dye 
India-rubber,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  attractive  colors 
that  appear  on  childrens'  toy  balloons  and  similar  pure  gum  goods 
are  applied  as  dyes,  the  colors  being  analines,  with  methylic  alco- 
hol as  a  base.  These  colors  are  boiled  in  rainwater,  and  when  the 
solution  is  cold  the  balloons  are  put  into  the  coloring  liquid  and 
turned  so  as  to  have  their  entire  surface  wetted.  After  that,  they 
are  dropped  into  cold  water,  which  washes  off  the  superfluous 
color.  When  this  is  done  properly,  the  rubber  does  not  give  off 
any  stain  at  all  after  the  first  washing.  The  colors  used  in  this 
way  are  red,  green,  blue,  orange,  and  pink,  but  other  shades  are 
equally  available. 


136         COLORING  MATTERS  AND  PROCESSES. 

In  Germany  a  full  line  of  aniline  colors  soluble  in  benzine 
is  now  manufactured,  and  for  surface  coloring  of  rubber  goods 
they  have  been  found  very  valuable.  Although  they  are  not  abso- 
lutely fast,  they  are  sufficiently  so  for  all  practical  purposes.  In 
many  cases,  these  aniline  colors,  being  soluble  in  benzine,  can  be 
mixed  right  with  the  India-rubber — that  is,  when  it  is  used  in  the 
form  of  solution.  If  the  product  is  cured  in  open  steam  heat  with 
sulphur,  some  very  curious  effects  are  likely  to  be  obtained.  This 
was  proved  some  years  ago  when  a  line  of  rubber  colors  was  put 
on  the  market  in  the  United  States,  with  white  oxide  of  antimony 
as  a  base,  and  anilines  to  give  various  shades.  It  does  not  often 
happen,  however,  that  a  problem  of  this  kind  confronts  the  users 
of  aniline  colors  in  rubber,  the  more  general  and  sensible  way  being 
that  of  surface  coloring.  This  is  done  in  some  cases  by  simply 
brushing  the  aniline  color  dissolved  in  benzine  over  the  surface  of 
the  article.  It  is  desirable,  however,  first  to  dip  the  goods  in  the 
dissolved  mordant,  and  then  to  use  the  brush,  if  necessary.  Where 
a  high  polish,  or  a  polished  effect  is  desired,  some  sort  of  elastic 
lacquer  must  be  put  on  over  the  coloring  matter.  A  very  thin 
India-rubber  solution  is  often  used  for  this. 

In  speaking  of  anilines,  it  must  be  remembered  that  those 
that  have  to  be  worked  up  with  acids  should  be  avoided  for  rub- 
ber work,  but  there  are  so  many  others  that  there  is  no  need  of 
the  rubberman  making  this  mistake.  Where  colors  are  to  be 
printed  upon  rubber  surfaces,  a  little  dextrine  is  added  to  the  ani- 
line dissolved  in  benzine,  and  to  make  the  color  dry  faster,  a  little 
sulphate  of  manganese  mixed  with  half  of  I  per  cent,  of  alum  and 
added  to  the  mass  is  advisable. 

Black,  blue,  red,  yellow,  and  green  anilines  are  also  used  in 
coloring  rubber  cements  that  go  to  the  leather  shoe  trade.  These 
and  other  anilines  are  also  used  very  generally  in  artificial  leather 
compounds.  Aniline,  black,  is  used  in  water  varnishes  for  luster 
coats  and  blankets. 

It  is  also  a  good  idea  to  sponge  the  rubber  surface  with  a 
water  solution  of  alum  before  the  color  is  applied.  The  use  of 
alum  as  a  mordant  may  be  supplanted  by  bisulphate  of  soda,  if  it 
is  desired.  The  best  colors  available  in  the  aniline  series  are  reds, 
particularly  magenta  reds,  and  the  marine  and  alkali  blues. 


WHITES.  137 

A  great  many  methods  of  surface  coloring  have  been  devised, 
some  of  them  being  ludicrous  attempts  at  dyeing  rubber.  -The  sur- 
face of  rubber  is,  of  course,  not  easily  affected  by  colors,  unless  it 
has  first  been  attacked  and  roughened  by  some  powerful  solvent. 
Malcolm's  process  for  this  surface  coloring  is  perhaps  as  harm- 
less as  any.  This  method  is  to  expose  the  rubber  to  the  sunlight 
while  it  is  immersed  in  alcohol.  When  the  surface  is  somewhat 
disintegrated,  the  rubber  is  taken  out,  washed,  and  dipped  in  a 
dye  solution. 

The  colors  that  follow  are  described  very  briefly,  and  most 
of  them  are  such  that  any  rubber  manufacturer  can  easily  secure 
them  for  use  or  for  experiment. 

WHITE. 

ONLY  a  few  colors  are  available  for  use  in  making  white 
rubber  goods.  Of  these,  the  zincs  take  the  lead,  being  by  far  the 
most  constant  and  valuable.  They  lend  their  color  to  the  mass 
simply  by  their  presence  as  dry  paints  with  strong  coloring  quali- 
ties. 

OXIDE  OF  ZINC  is  used  more  than  any  other  coloring  matter 
in  the  production  of  white  rubber.  It  is  especially  valuable  be- 
cause during  the  process  of  vulcanization  it  increases  the  white- 
ness of  the  goods.  This  is  because  the  part  of  the  zinc  oxide  that 
is  turned  into  the  zinc  sulphide  is  a  stronger  white  than  the  first. 
Oxide  of  zinc  made  of  pure  spelter  is  the  best.  Where  lead  and 
zinc  ores  are  found  together  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  oxide 
contains  a  certain  amount  of  lead,  and  then  its  value  as  a  coloring 
matter  is  injured.  It  is  prepared  by  two  processes,  an  air  blast, 
and  a  steam  current ;  in  other  words,  by  a  dry  and  a  wet  process. 
That  prepared  by  the  wet  process,  even  when  strongly  heated,  con- 
tains more  water  than  does  that  produced  by  the  dry  process.  The 
specific  gravity  of  zinc  oxide  is  5.61.  A  certain  percentage  of  this 
oxide  is  often  added  to  dark  colored  goods  to  increase  the  resili- 
ency of  the  rubber.  It  also  increases  the  hardness  of  a  compound 
where  soft  gums  are  used.  Manufacturers  of  insulated  wire  find 
that  it  increases  the  insulating  qualities  of  rubber  when  added  in 
moderate  quantity. 

ZINC  WHITE.— See  Oxide  of  Zinc. 


138         COLORING  MATTERS  AND  PROCESSES. 

SULPHIDE  OF  ZINC. — This  is  a  white  that  is  fully  equal  to  the 
popular  oxide,  and  does  not  alter  its  tint  under  the  influence  of  sul- 
phur and  heat.  It  is  said  to  exert  a  distinctly  preservative  action 
upon  India-rubber.  Sulphide  of  zinc,  pure  and  in  combination 
with  other  materials,  and  under  various  names,  has  been  sold  very 
largely  to  rubber  manufacturers.  It  is  deemed  especially  valuable 
in  white  goods  cured  with  dry  heat.  It  is  used  in  high  grade 
white  stocks,  and  even  in  pink  dental  rubber.  It  also  assists  in 
the  vulcanization  of  rubber. 

OLEUM  WHITE. — A  high  grade  of  sulphide  of  zinc,  in  which 
is  a  certain  proportion  of  blanc  fixe.  It  is  a  trifle  heavier  than  a 
pure  sulphide  of  zinc,  but  in  practice  has  been  found  to  be  equal 
if  not  better  than  either  the  sulphide  or  oxide  of  zinc  in  the  manu- 
facture of  certain  white  rubbers. 

CARBONATE  OF  ZINC. — This  is  a  form  of  zinc  rarely  known  to- 
day in  rubber  mills.  The  first  white  rubber,  however,  was  made 
of  it  under  a  patent  granted  to  that  eminent  rubber  manufacturer, 
the  late  Henry  G.  Tyer.  It  is  a  white  powder,  and  is  a  mixture  of 
equal  quantities  of  sulphide  of  zinc  and  carbonate  of  sodium, 
and  subsequently  the  boiling  of  the  same  for  a  short  time. 

BORATE  OF  ZINC. — A  zinc  salt,  precipitated  by  20  to  30  per 
cent,  of  a  soluble  borate,  the  result  being  a  white  powder,  which  is 
claimed  to  have  a  distinctively  preservative  influence  when  used 
in  rubber,  while  the  tensile  strength  of  the  gum  is  much  enhanced. 

[Lascelles-Scott.] 

CALAMINE  WHITE. — This  is  prepared  from  the  native  carbon- 
ate of  zinc,  by  calcining  and  grinding.  It  is  not  a  strong  white, 
and  is  not  nearly  as  good  as  the  oxide  or  carbonate  of  zinc  as  a 
coloring  matter.  For  a  cheap  white,  and  a  filler,  however,  it  is 
useful.  Although  the  German  anti-poison  act  of  1887  prohibits  the 
use  of  zinc  as  a  coloring  matter,  it  does  not  apply  to  its  ordinary 
use  in  rubber  compounding.  They  rule  that  zinc  compounds  not 
soluble  in  water  may  be  used  in  rubber  when  and  where  the  color- 
ing matter  is  mixed  in  the  mass  before  vulcanizing,  or  as  a  color 
layer  on  the  surface  if  it  is  covered  with  a  lacquer  varnish. 

BARIUM  WHITE. — This  is  also  called  constant  white,  and 
comes  from  the  sulphate  of  barium  or  heavy  spar.  In  treatment, 
it  is  ground  very  fine,  treated  with  hot  hydrochloric  acid,  washed, 


BLACKS.  139 

dried,  sifted,  and  then  forms  a  fairly  white,  dense,  impalpable 
powder.  The  pure  article,  obtained  by  precipitation,  is  a  brilliant 
white,  and  is  often  used  in  rubber  compounding.  It  is  one  of  the 
few  metallic  colors  that  the  German  anti-poison  act  allows  manu- 
facturers to  use  in  any  way  they  please. 

GRIFFITHS'S  WHITE  is  a  sulphide  of  zinc  of  English  manu- 
facture, prepared  by  precipitation,  and  containing  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  magnesia. 

FARD'S  SPANISH  WHITE. — Also  known  as  Pearl  White.  A 
tri-nitrate  of  bismuth,  and  a  white  that,  it  is  said,  has  a  future  in 
rubber  compounding.  It  is  not  easily  affected  by  atmospheric  in- 
fluences, or  by  the  action  of  sulphurous  compounds. 

[A.  Camille.] 

LITHOPHONE. — A  sulphide  of  zinc  in  which  is  found  a  certain 
percentage  of  barium.  It  is  a  constant  white,  and  is  largely  used 
instead  of  oxide  of  zinc  for  white  goods,  particularly  in  the  manu- 
facture of  druggists'  and  surgical  sundries. 

BLACK. 

THERE  are  more  methods  of  getting  black  rubbers,  than 
almost  any  other  color,  as  the  tendency  of  the  gum  itself  is  to 
darken  under  heat  and  the  action  of  sulphur,  and  the  sulphides  of 
most  materials  that  are  used  in  the  compounding  have  the  same 
effect.  Most  rubber  goods  are  made  up  without  regard  to 
color,  and  are  usually  a  dirty  brownish-black,  tempered  by  the  yel- 
low of  the  sulphur  bloom.  Where  a  genuine  black  is  wanted, 
however,  some  of  the  vegetable  blacks  or  perhaps  certain  of  the 
leads  are  employed.  Lampblack  is  one  of  the  most  common  in- 
gredients used. 

LAMPBLACK. — Pure  Lampblack  is  pure  carbon,  as  indeed  is 
the  diamond.  Lampblack,  however,  is  carbon  in  its  amorphous 
or  spongy  form,  while  the  diamond  is  crystaline.  It  is  obtained  on 
a  large  scale  by  collecting  the  smoke  produced  during  the  com- 
bustion of  oils,  fats,  resins,  coal,  gas,  tar,  wood  tar,  petroleum 
residues,  dead  oil,  and  even  bituminous  coal.  This  accounts  for 
the  various  grades  that  are  to  be  found  on  the  market.  Large 
quantities  of  Lampblack  have  also  been  manufactured  from  natural 
gas.  There  are  many  types  of  Lampblack,  the  best  in  the  world 


140         COLORING  MATTERS  AND  PROCESSES. 

being  employed  in  the  preparation  of  Indian  ink.  This  is  made 
from  burning  camphor,  a  lower  grade  being  made  from  the  mix- 
ture of  camphor  and  other  oils.  The  smoke  is  collected  on  leaves, 
washed,  dried,  and  sifted  with  the  utmost  care.  The  lines  of  rub- 
ber goods  in  which  it  is  generally  found  are  rubber  boots  and 
shoes,  surface  clothing,  and  carriage  cloth,  druggists'  sundries 
(where  the  leads  are  deemed  dangerous),  and  in  certain  composi- 
tions where  emery  is  the  chief  ingredient  used  for  grinding  or 
polishing.  A  curious  fact  about  Lampblack  is  that  a  little  bit  of 
it  in  unvulcanized,  erasive  rubber,  seems  to  assist  the  erasive 
quality,  and  does  not  cause  smutting.  A  little  of  it  is  also  some- 
times added  to  churning  mixtures  that  do  not  readily  mix.  The 
following  analysis  of  the  composition  of  lampblack  is  given  by 
Braconnot : 

Carbon 79.  i 

Water...  8.0 


Resinous  matter 

Bituminous  matter  or  pitch. 

Sulphate  of  ammonium 

Sulphate  of  calcium. 


5-3 
1-7 
3-3 

.8 

•4 


Sulphate  of  potassium  ........................ 

Chloride  of  potassium  ...........................  traces. 

Phosphates  of  calcium  and  iron  ..................  .3 

Siliceous  or  earthy  matter  .  .  .  .  ...................  i  .  i 

Total  .............................  ......  100.0 

The  analysis  of  lampblack  from  a  large  black  manufactory 
in  the  United  States  : 

Carbon  .................................           .  .  79.  i 


Humin  ..........................................  0.5 

Sulphate  of  ammonium  .........................  3.3 

Sulphate  of  lime  ................................  0.8 

Sulphate  of  potash  ..............................  0.4 

Phosphate  of  lime  ..............................  0.3 

Water  ..........................................  8.0 

Chloride  of  potassium  ..........................    trace  only. 

Sand  (accidental)  ................................  0.6 

Total  ...................................       100.0 

BONEBLACK,  also  called  animal  charcoal  and  sometimes  ivory 
black,  is  a  black  powder  obtained  by  grinding  the  product  of  bones 
that  are  burned  at  a  red  heat  in  close  vessels.  It  resembles  vege- 
table charcoal,  but  is  more  dense  and  less  combustible.  A  good 


BLACKS.  141 

quality  should  have  an  even  color,  of  a  rather  dull  shade.     On 
analysis,  boneblack  shows  the  following: 

Phosphate  of  lime, 78.0 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 1.5 

Carbonate  of  lime 8.5 

Carbon 10.0 

Impurities,  silica,  iron,  etc 2.0 

Total 100.0 

SULPHIDE  OF  LEAD. — This  is  a  valuable  coloring  matter  for 
rubber,  as  it  gives  a  good  black,  besides  which  it  makes  goods  ex- 
ceedingly resilient.  There  are  great  differences  in  the  production 
of  lead  sulphides,  but,  as  before  remarked,  a  good  one  is  of  special 
value  to  rubber  manufacturers.  (See  Leads.) 

MINERAL  BLACK  is  a  pigment  that  is  said  to  be  made  from 
bituminous  lignite.  It  is  very  porous,  and  is  not  recommended 
for  rubber  work.  A  very  little  ultramarine  blue  added  to  a  black 
in  rubber,  sometimes  overcomes  the  grayish  shade. 

SULPHIDE  OF  URANIUM. — A  fine  black  pigment  more  intense 
than  plumbic  blacks.  It  is  a  permanent  color,  and  is  said  to  be  a 
preservative  of  rubber. 

BLACK  HYPO. —  This  is  also  known  as  hyposulphite  of  lead. 
It  is  really  a  mixture  of  thiosulphate  of  sodium  mixed  with  ace- 
tate of  lead,  and  appears  as  a  fine  white  crystaline  precipitate, 
which  should  be  called  thiosulphate  of  lead.  There  are  two  forms, 
the  white  hypo  and  the  Black  Hypo,  the  difference  being  that  the 
white  when  heated  is  transformed  into  a  soft  black  powder  con- 
taining very  little  free  sulphur.  The  black  of  the  compound  being 
sulphide  of  lead  often  contains  over  90  per  cent,  of  pure  sulphide. 
It  is  an  excellent  vulcanizing  agent,  and  also  a  filler.  When  pro- 
perly prepared  it  makes  goods  absolutely  free  from  bloom. 

CARBON  BLACKS  of  late  have  been  used  very  largely  in  rubber 
compounding  and  have  done  excellent  work.  They  are  not  as 
black,  as  a  rule,  as  the  better  grades  of  lampblack  made 
from  oils  or  resin.  They  are  in  many  cases  wholly  inert,  how- 
ever, and  therefore  perfectly  safe  to  use.  One  of  the  best  types 
of  this  sort  of  coloring  matter  comes  from  a  graphite  mine  in  the 
United  States.  It  is  wholly  amorphous,  and  has  none  of  the  flaky 
make-up  that  ordinary  graphite  has,  and  is  97  per  cent,  pure  car- 
bon. Carbon  Blacks,  it  is  also  said,  give  a  brighter  finish  to  var- 
nished goods  than  ordinary  lampblacks. 


142         COLORING  MATTERS  AND  PROCESSES. 

OAK  BLACK. — A  product  of  the  distillation  of  oak  wood  after 
draining  off  (i)  wood  alcohol  and  (2)  a  product  resembling  tar. 
It  is  used  in  certain  black  insulating  compounds  in  connection  with 
shellac,  coal  tar,  paraffine,  and  asbestos. 

BLUE. 

BLUES  are  not  largely  used  in  general  rubber  work.  They 
are  found  chiefly  in  toys,  in  sheetings,  and  in  certain  packings. 
The  most  important  blue  is — 

ULTRAMARINE. — This  is  made  from  lapis  lazuli.  The  exact 
composition  of  this  coloring  matter  is  not  known,  but  it  is  said  to 
be  based  on  a  silicate  of  alumina  with  sulphide  of  sodium.  An 
artificial  ultramarine  is  often  produced  which  is  equal  and  often 
superior  to  the  natural  pigment.  This  is  made  of  kaolin,  carbon- 
ate of  sodium,  willow  charcoal,  and  sulphur.  The  following 
analysis  of  natural  Ultramarine  is  given : 

Silica 37.6 

Alumina  27.4 

Sulphur 14.2 

Soda : 20.0 

Analyses  of  the  best  artificial  Ultramarines  show  these  figures : 

Silica 40.25  39.39  40.19 

Alumina 26.62  24.40  25.85 

Sulphur 13.42  12.69  13.27 

Soda 19.89  21.52  20.69 

Ultramarine  appears  in  commerce  as  a  fine  blue  powder  of 
various  standards  of  fineness.  Acids  readily  destroy  it,  but  alka- 
lies have  no  effect  on  it.  It  stands  heat  well,  not  changing  below 
a  low  red.  It  is  used  in  cements  for  backs  of  memorandum  blocks, 
and  in  blue  soft  rubber  goods,  particularly  in  vapor  cured  goods, 
such  as  sheeting.  When  mixed  ^h  chrome  yellow  it  makes  a 
green;  with  colcothar,  it  makes  a  violet.  Mixed  with  rose  pink, 
oxide  of  zinc,  and  Indian  red,  it  produced  the  well-known  wine- 
colored  coat  that  was  so  popular  a  few  years  ago.  It  is  claimed 
that  Ultramarine  blue  keeps  rubber  from  overcuring,  and  that  it 
is,  therefore,  a  most  useful  ingredient  to  add  to  compounds  that 
are  exposed  to  heat. 

YALE  BLUE. — In  certain  soft  rubber  goods,  where  a  strong 
blue  is  needed,  ultramarine  was  found  unsatisfactory.  A  firm  of 
rubber  chemists  therefore  produced  Yale  Blue,  which  is  a  strong 


BLUES.  143 

coloring  matter,  and  wholly  inert  as  far  as  the  rubber  is  concerned. 
SMALTS. — This  is  what  may  be  called  a  deep  tinted  cobalt 
glass.    The  analysis  of  Smalts  of  good  quality  is  as  follows : 

Deep-colored 
Norwegian. 

Silica 70.9 

Potassa  (with  traces  of  soda  and  lime) 20.4 

Oxide  of  cobalt 6.5 

Alumina .4 

Peroxide  of  iron. 3 

Other  earths  and  oxides,  and  loss 1.5 


Total 100.0  100.0 

This  is  one  of  the  few  colors  that  are  practically  indestructa- 
ble.  In  using  Smalts  for  the  pigment,  large  quantities  are  neces- 
sary, as  the  color  is  not  exceedingly  strong. 

COBALT  BLUE  is  manufactured  from  oxide  of  cobalt,  phos- 
phate of  cobalt,  and  alumina.  It  is  rarely  used  in  coloring  rubber 
where  the  ingredients  are  to  be  mixed  with  the  mass,  ultramarine 
being  much  superior.  Also  called  Smalts. 

Thenards  blue  is  similar  to  cobalt  blue,  but  is  a  more  beau- 
tiful pigment.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  surface  color.  White  pig- 
ments in  small  quantities  added  to  this  blue  make  beautiful  tur- 
quois  colors. 

PRUSSIAN  BLUE. — A  dark  brilliant  blue  compound,  having 
iron  for  a  base.  There  is  a  soluble  and  an  insoluble  variety  of 
this  compound  which  is  of  a  somewhat  complex  chemical  con- 
stitution. Heated  strongly  in  the  air,  the  insoluble  form  of  Prus- 
sian Blue  burns  like  tinder.  When  boiled  with  caustic  potash,  it 
is  decomposed.  If  the  dry  powder  be  strongly  rubbed  in  a  mortar, 
it  assumes  a  copper  red  luster.  In  commerce  it  occurs  in  irregular 
shaped  masses,  having  a  characteristic  conchoidal  fracture  and 
copper  red  luster. 

CHROME  BLUE  is  manufactured  from  silica,  fluor  spar,  and 
chromate  of  potash.  The  resultant  material  is  a  deep  blue,  vi- 
trious  mass  which  is  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder.  It  is  less 
sensitive  to  acids  than  ultramarine,  and  is  better  adapted  for  rub- 
ber goods.  [Jules  Gamier.] 

MOLYBDENUM  BLUE. — A  pigment  recommended  by  Lascel- 
les-Scott,  which  is  a  natural  bisulphide  of  molybdenum,  found 


144         COLORING  MATTERS  AND  PROCESSES. 

chiefly  in  Sweden.  It  is  an  exceedingly  beautiful  blue,  but  at 
present  is  rare.  The  distinguished  chemist  above  quoted  men- 
tions that  large  new  deposits  of  this  mineral  have  been  found  in 
the  United  States  and  Australia,  and  that  it  is  likely  to  be  so 
cheapened  that  it  will  be  a  valuable  rubber  pigment. 

INDIGO  BLUE  is  prepared  from  plants  of  the  indigofera  genus. 
Pure  Indigo  is  insoluble  in  water,  nor  is  it  soluble  in  weak  acids 
or  alkalies.  A  small  percentage  is  dissolved  in  alcohol  and  its 
solution  is  more  considerable  in  turpentine.  Indigo  Blue  for  rub- 
ber is  said  to  be  valuable  on  account  of  its  preserving  qualities, 
which  are  double  that  of  other  blues. 

RED  AND  BROWN. 

THE  strong  red  coloring  matters  used  in  rubber  work  are 
mostly  of  a  mercurial  base.  These  are  vermilion,  red  chromate  of 
mercury,  sulphide  of  mercury,  and  iodide  of  mercury.  The 
Chinese  vermilion,  which  is  the  best,  is  prepared  by  a  special  pro- 
cess of  their  own,  and  contains  89  per  cent,  of  pure  mercury,  the 
rest  being  sulphur.  This  coloring  matter  is  used  very  largely  in 
dental  vulcanite,  small  amounts  of  it  also  giving  excellent  shades 
in  soft  rubber  goods.  Cinnabar  and  Paris  red  are  also  mercurial 
sulphides,  and  very  strong  colors.  The  sulphides  of  mercury  are 
really  the  only  ones  that  are  safe  and  valuable  for  producing  these 
colors.  Red  chalk  and  natural  clay  containing  a  certain  amount  of 
iron  are  used  chiefly  as  fillers  in  rubber  goods,  although  a  certain 
quantity  of  them  produce  a  dark  red  color. 

VERMILION. — The  red  form  of  mercuric  sulphide  is  a  scarlet 
red  powder  of  specific  gravity  8.124.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated 
with  red  lead  or  red  oxide  of  iron,  but  such  adulterations  can  be 
detected  by  heating  a  small  sample  of  the  suspected  article  on  a 
porcelain  or  platinum  dish.  If  any  adulterant  is  present  it  will 
remain  behind  as  a  residue,  since  pure  Vermilion  is  completely 
volatile.  This  substance  is  sometimes  called  cinnabar.  A  substi- 
tute for  vermilion  in  hard  rubber  was  brought  out  by  John  Hali- 
day  in  1870.  This  was  a  mixture  of  garancine  and  cochineal,  in 
water  solutions,  boiled  and  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  5  parts  of 
garancine  liquor  to  I  part  of  cochineal  liquor.  To  each  gallon 
of  this  compound  liquor  2  pounds  of  pure  oxide  of  antimony  was 


REDS  AND  BROWNS.  145 

added;  then,  after  heating  until  the  water  was  evaporatedt  the 
new  coloring  matter  perfectly  dry.  Another  substitute  for  ver- 
milion was  white  oxide  of  antimony.  According  to  A.  D.  Schles- 
inger,  the  veteran  of  hard  rubber  experts,  white  oxide  of  antimony, 
when  mixed  with  India-rubber  and  sulphur,  will,  during  vul- 
canization, impart  to  hard  rubber  a  light  red  color  very  similar 
to  that  obtained  by  the  use  of  vermilion.  The  proportion  of  sul- 
phur is  the  same  as  is  used  ordinarily  in  making  vulcanite,  while 
to  each  pound  of  rubber  is  added  12  ounces  of  antimony  sulphide. 

RED  OXIDE  OF  IRON. — This  is  familiar  as  iron  rust.  It  is  arti- 
ficially prepared  and  forms  a  scarlet  powder  of  a  specific  gravity 
of  4.46.  This  contains  about  5  per  cent,  water  of  crystalization, 
which  cannot  be  driven  off  at  temperatures  up  to  212°  F.,  and 
with  difficulty  at  higher  ones.  (See  Colcothar.) 

PEROXIDE  OF  IRON. — An  old  name  for  the  sesquioxide  of  iron, 
now  called  ferric  oxide.  (See  Oxide  of  Iron.) 

PRINCE'S  METALLIC  PAINT. — An  oxide  of  iron. 

INDIAN  RED. — Another  name  for  oxide  of  iron. 

RED  HEMATITE. — An  ore  of  iron,  somewhat  soft  and  friable. 
Specific  gravity  5.19  to  5.28.  Composition  70  per  cent,  iron,  30 
per  cent,  oxygen.  Insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  or  rubber  solvents. 
As  a  colorant  in  rubber  work  it  is  unchangeable  chemically.  Used 
in  packings  and  for  dark  maroons. 

VENETIAN  RED. — See  Colcothar. 

RED  OCHRE. — An  impure  oxide  of  iron.  A  dull  red  earthy 
substance  containing  clayey  matter,  and  having  a  specific  gravity 
of  about  5.2.  Used  chiefly  as  a  filler,  as  the  color  is  not  strong. 
As  far  back  as  the  time  of  Dr.  Mattson,  Red  Ochre,  Venetian  red, 
and  Indian  red,  were  advised  by  him  for  use  in  rubber  com- 
pounding. Indeed,  he  obtained  a  patent  for  packing  in  which 
Venetian  red  was  the  principal  adulterant. 

ORANGE  VERMILION  gives  a  very  handsome  color  in  connec- 
tion with  rubber,  but  is  rarely  used,  as  it  is  not  permanent  if  other 
metals,  such  as  copper,  brass,  iron,  and  zinc,  come  in  contact 
with  it. 

CRIMSON  SULPHIDE  OF  ANTIMONY. — This  is  altogether  the 
best  antimony  color  now  in  use.  It  not  only  gives  a  fine  shade  of 
orange  or  red,  but  it  also  is  an  excellent  vulcanizing  agent. 


146         COLORING  MATTERS  AND  PROCESSES. 

COLCOTHAR. — A  form  of  oxide  of  iron  of  the  specific  gravity 
of  4.8  to  5.3.  It  is  the  residue  left  in  the  manufacture  of  fuming 
sulphuric  acid  from  green  vitriol.  The  least  calcined  portions, 
which  are  scarlet  in  color,  are  termed  jewelers'  rouge,  and  the 
more  calcined  parts,  of  a  bluish  shade,  are  called  crocus.  Its 
composition  is  that  of  ferric  oxide.  In  its  reaction  it  is  indifferent, 
being  very  stable  under  ordinary  conditions.  Colcothar  is  a  dull 
red  and  is  often  used  in  red  packings,  soleings,  etc.  Many  rubber 
chemists  prepare  their  own  Colcothar,  as  they  are  able  to  get 
brighter  shades  than  is  possible  from  the  goods  ordinarily  sold  in 
the  open  market. 

UMBER. — A  brown  earthy  mineral,  containing  chiefly  the 
oxides  of  iron  and  manganese.  The  following  analysis,  by  Prof. 
A.  H.  Church,  is  taken  from  a  choice  specimen  of  Cyprus  Umber : 
Oxide  of  iron,  48;  oxide  of  manganese,  19;  silica,  13.7;  water 
yielded  at  a  heat  of  212°  F.,  4.8;  mixture  of  lime,  magnesia, 
alumina  with  organic  matter,  14.5.  In  using  Umber  for  rubber 
compounding,  care  should  be  taken  to  dry  the  material  thoroughly 
at  212°  F.,  before  it  is  used.  Burnt  Umber  is  the  product  obtained 
by  roasting  the  above  material.  It  is  slightly  redder  in  color  and 
will  naturally  contain  less  water.  For  brown  colors,  in  addition 
to  Umber,  various  natural  earthy  matters  are  used,  as  are  also 
oxy-sulphide  of  antimony  and  sepia,  the  latter  being  an  animal 
coloring  matter  made  from  the  bright  fluid  formed  in  the  ink  bag 
of  cuttle  fishes.  Sienna  and  chestnut  brown  are  practically  the 
same  as  Umber,  while  Vandyke  brown  is  made  of  oxide  of  iron, 
ground  very  fine,  and  is  not  injurious  to  rubber.  While  these  in- 
gredients are  practically  inert,  they  do  not  make  the  best  of  rub- 
ber compounds,  as  the  resulting  compound  is  apt  to  have  a  hard 
stony  feeling. 

YELLOW. 

YELLOWS  are  not  often  demanded  in  rubber  work,  except  in 
a  few  fancy  articles  and  in  hose  markings.  The  most  common 
is  that  produced  by  the  golden  sulphuret  of  antimony,  but  color 
is  not  what  is  sought  in  the  use  of  that  ingredient,  but  rather  the 
excellent  rubber  produced  by  it  when  used  instead  of  sulphur. 
Other  mineral  yellows  used  are  strontium,  chromium,  cadmium, 


YELLOWS.  147 

barium,  and  arsenic.  Chrome  yellow  is  made  from  a  lead  base 
which  darkens  when  subjected  to  vulcanization. 

CADMIUM  YELLOW. — This  is  the  best  pigment  for  producing 
yellow  in  a  rubber  compound.  It  does  not  injure  the  elasticity 
or  strength  of  the  India-rubber  in  any  way,  and,  while  it  has  no 
special  effect  on  vulcanization,  perhaps  hurries  it  a  little.  It  is 
not  injurious  to  the  health  of  persons  using  it,  and  is  generally 
used  for  surface  ornamentation  of  toys,  etc.  It  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  yellow  sulphide  of  tin  to  cheapen  it.  While  Cadmium  was 
ruled  against  in  the  German  anti-poison  act,  the  sulphides  of  this 
metal  were  made  an  exception,  and  said  to  be  safe.  In  dental 
plates,  however,  where  the  coloring  matter  was  used  in  large 
quantity,  it  was  advised  against.  The  costliness  of  Cadmium 
Yellow  at  present  bars  its  general  use  in  rubber. 

AUREOLIN  YELLOW. — A  very  handsome  color,  and  one  that 
is  stable  and  brilliant.  It  is  made  up  of  acetate  of  cobalt  and 
nitrate  of  potassium.  The  color  stands  the  light  well,  and  sulphur 
compounds  have  little  influence  upon  it.  This  is  chiefly  used  for 
surface  work. 

GAMBOGE  YELLOW. — Obtained  from  the  Garicinia  morella. 
It  contains  from  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  gum,  65  per  cent,  of  resin, 
3  per  cent,  of  volatile  oil.  It  is  soluble  particularly  in  spirits,  in 
a  number  of  oily  liquids,  and  partially  in  water.  Finely  pulver- 
ized Gamboge  may  be  mixed  with  rubber,  and  is  said  to  be  a  pre- 
servative of  it. 

BARBERRY  YELLOW. — Made  from  the  root  or  bark  of  the 
Barberis  vulgaris.  It  is  largely  used  in  coloring  leather  surfaces, 
and,  in  connection  with  gamboge,  is  said  to  be  useful  in  rubber 
work. 

YELLOW  OCHRE. — There  are  several  ochres,  all  of  them  being 
practically  oxides  or  iron.  They  are  earthy  substances  of  no  par- 
ticular reaction,  very  stable,  having  a  specific  gravity  about  5. 
Their  low  cost  renders  them  available  for  almost  any  work,  but 
the  colors  produced  are  not  especially  beautiful. 

ARSENIC  YELLOW. — Also  known  as  king's  yellow,  and  is  a 
term  applied  to  sulphide  of  arsenic.  A  cheap  grade  of  this,  which 
is  really  only  an  imitation,  is  manufactured  by  mixing  together 
litharge  and  white  arsenic,  and  grinding  the  product.  Either  of 


148         COLORING  MATTERS  AND  PROCESSES. 

these,  of  course,  is  poisonous,  and  they  are  very  rarely  used  or 
needed  in  connection  with  rubber.  The  specific  gravity  of  Arse- 
nic Yellow  is  3.48.  Although  a  sulphide,  there  is  not  enough 
sulphur  in  its  composition  to  vulcanize  India-rubber.  On  account 
of  its  poisonous  properties,  this  yellow  has  been  largely  super-, 
seded  commercially  by  the  comparatively  harmless  chrome  yel- 
lows. Another  name  for  this  color  is  orpiment.  It  was  often 
used  in  rubber  compounds  of  twenty  years  ago.  A  small  quantity 
in  white  zinc  stock  takes  off  the  glaring  white  effect,  and  pro- 
duces a  handsome  cream  white.  Must  be  in  an  impalpable  powder 
to  bring  out  the  color. 

CHROME  YELLOW. — Ordinarily  the  chromate  of  lead,  which 
is  largely  used  as  a  pigment.  It  is  somewhat  poisonous  and  is 
apt  to  oxydize  organic  substances,  particularly  if  sulphur  is  pre- 
sent. Has  been  used  in  the  surface  ornamentation  of  rubber  toys, 
but  such  use  is  generally  condemned.  The  only  Chrome  Yellows 
that  are  really  valuable  for  rubber  work  are  the  chromate  of  zinc, 
or  possibly  the  chromate  of  strontium. 

ORPIMENT. — See  Arsenic  Yellow. 

GREEN. 

IT  is  fortunate  that  greens  are  not  largely  sought  in  the  rub- 
ber industry,  for  they  are  rare.  Arsenic  greens  in  many  cases  are 
not  to  be  thought  of ;  therefore  about  the  only  ones  that  are  avail- 
able, unless  very  high  cost  goods  can  be  utilized,  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

CHROME  GREEN. — A  coloring  matter  that  is  not  affected  by 
strong  acids,  or  alkalies,  and  which  is  inert  when  mixed  with 
India-rubber.  It  is  the  best  mineral  green  that  can  be  used  in 
connection  with  rubber.  It  is  really  a  sesquioxide  of  chromium ; 
and  may  be  mixed  with  rubber,  with  any  kind  of  solvent,  and 
with  other  oxides  and  pigments,  without  hurt  to  the  compounds. 

TERRA-VERTE  is  of  mineral  origin,  and  is  imported  in  large 
quantities  from  Italy.  It  is  a  pale  neutral  green  of  moderate  cost, 
and  is  not  injurious  to  rubber.  On  analysis  it  shows : 

No.  i.  No.  2. 

Silica 51.50  46.00 

Alumina 12.00  11.70 

Protoxide  of  iron 17.00  17.40 

Lime    2.50  3.00 


GREENS.  149 

Magnesia 3.50  8.oe 

Soda 4. 50  

Water 9.00  13-90 


Total 100.00  loo.oo 

The  analysts  of  the  above  were,  of  No.  I,  Klaproth;  of  No. 
2,  Berthier. 

GREEN  ULTRAMARINE  is  made  by  a  process  very  similar  to 
that  made  in  producing  blue  of  that  name,  and  its  action  upon 
rubber  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  ultramarine  blues. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ACIDS,  ALKALIES,  AND  THEIR  DERIVATIVES,  USED  IN  THE  RUBBER 
MANUFACTURE. 

As  a  rule  neither  acids  nor  alkalies,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
term,  are  largely  used  in  ordinary  rubber  compounding.  In  a 
great  many  of  the  processes,  however,  that  go  far  to  make  up 
finished  goods,  acids  are  used,  as,  for  example,  in  those  employed 
in  the  reclaiming  of  rubber  chemically.  Alkalies  also  are  most 
necessary,  a  notable  example  being  the  use  of  caustic  potash  and 
caustic  soda  solutions  in  removing  sulphur  from  manufactured 
goods.  A  great  variety  of  uses  other  than  these  are  indicated  in 
the  following  pages: 

ACETIC  ACID. — This  is  usually  obtained  by  the  dry  distilla- 
tion of  wood  fiber,  peat,  or  sawdust.  The  strongest  form  is 
known  as  glacial  and  occurs  in  large  watery  crystals,  readily 
liquified.  The  common  commercial  acid  usually  has  a  brown  or 
yellowish  color,  due  to  impurity,  since  the  pure  acid  is  colorless. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  1.05,  and  it  has  a  characteristic  odor  familiar 
enough  in  vinegar.  As  an  acid  it  is  not  very  corrosive,  and  its 
compounds  are  easily  decomposed  by  mineral  acids.  It  is  quite 
volatile.  The  primary  use  of  this  acid  in  connection  with  India- 
rubber  is  in  the  coagulation  of  rubber  milk.  It  is  a  prominent 
component  part  of  the  smoke  used  in  coagulating  fine  Para  rub- 
ber. It  has  also  been  used  under  the  Vaughn  process  for  coagulat- 
ing Balata,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  substitutes  like  lin- 
oxin,  Parkesine,  etc. ;  in  connection  with  nitro-cellulose  and  castor 
oil  in  the  production  of  certain  waterproofing  compositions;  by 
Brooman  in  separating  whiting,  white  lead  oxides,  etc.,  from  vul- 
canized rubber;  and  in  shoemakers'  blackings  in  connection  with 
caoutchouc  oil,  vinegar,  molasses,  and  lampblack. 

ALE. — A  beer  made  from  malt,  distinguished  chiefly  by  its 
strength  and  the  quantity  of  sugar  remaining  undecomposed, 
which  enables  the  liquor  to  keep,  without  requiring  a  large  amount 
of  hops.  A  mixture  of  ale  and  linseed  oil,  in  the  proportions  of 
8  parts  ale  to  2  parts  linseed  oil,  is  used  in  dissolving  isinglass, 
in  which  is  afterward  incorporated  shellac  and  India-rubber  in 
the  formation  of  what  is  known  as  ale  cement. 


ALUM— AMMONIA.  1 5 1 

ALUM. — A  general  term  for  several  chemical  compounds  of 
aluminum,  potassium,  chromium,  and  ammonium.  Common  alum 
is  the  double  sulphate  of  potassium  and  aluminum,  having  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  1.7  and  containing  45  per  cent,  of  water  of  crystali- 
zation,  one-quarter  of  which  is  expelled  on  heating  to  140°  F.  It  is 
soluble  in  water  9^  parts  per  100  when  cold,  357  parts  per  100  when 
hot.  Chrome  Alum  is  a  double  sulphate  of  chromium  and  potas- 
sium, its  specific  gravity  being  2.7,  and  containing  43  per  cent, 
water  of  crystalization,  which  is  almost  entirely  lost  at  392°  F. 
It  occurs  as  dull  purple  crystals,  slowly  soluble  in  water  to  20  per 
cent,  in  the  cold  and  50  per  cent,  in  hot  water.  Its  action  on  gela- 
tine is  remarkable  for  its  hardening  qualities.  Ammonia  Alum, 
the  double  sulphate  of  aluminum  and  ammonia,  is  largely  used 
in  place  of  common  alum.  It  contains  48  per  cent,  of  water  of 
crystalization  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.63.  Strongly  heated, 
it  yields  sulphate  of  ammonia  water  and  a  very  small  quantity  of 
of  sulphuric  acid,  while  alumina  is  left  behind.  It  is  soluble  in 
water  13  per  cent,  cold,  422  per  cent.  hot.  Roman  Alum  has  the 
same  general  characteristics  as  common  alum,  but  contains  a  lit- 
tle more  alumina. 

Alum  is  used  in  many  of  the  shower-proof  mixtures  for  cloths 
of  the  cravenette  order,  that  are  to-day  bought  and  made  up  by 
manufacturers  of  mackintoshes.  It  is  also  sometimes  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  sponge  rubber.  By  Garnier's  process  it  is  also 
used  in  spirituous  solution  to  cure  rubber  without  heat  by  mixing 
with  it.  Used  also  in  Wra/s  substitute  for  Gutta-percha. 
Alum  was  used  in  Payne's  Gutta-percha  compounds  for  proofing, 
varnishing,  and  paints.  Ghislin,  who  prepared  some  curious 
compounds  from  seaweed  and  India-rubber,  mixed  alum,  gela- 
tine, and  metallic  oxides  in  his  compounds.  It  is  also  sometimes 
used  in  compounding  rubber  to  make  sponge  effects  and  mixed 
with  sulphate  of  iron  and  soap,  in  a  water  mixture  with  boiled 
linseed  oil,  to  make  flexible  waterproofing  compounds. 

AMMONIA,  at  ordinary  temperature,  is  a  colorless  gas  of  well 
known  odor  and  sharp  biting  taste.  It  is  usually  met  with  in  the 
arts  in  watery  solution,  the  specific  gravity  of  which  varies  with 
the  amount  of  ammonia  gas  dissolved.  The  strongest,  sometimes 
called  caustic  ammonia,  contains  32.5  per  cent,  of  the  gas,  and 


152  ACIDS    AND    ALKALIES. 

has  a  specific  gravity  of  .875.  Ordinary  commercial  ammonia 
has  a  percentage  of  9.5  and  a  specific  gravity  of  0.96.  The  weak- 
est usually  has  a  percentage  of  5.5  and  a  specific  gravity  of  .978. 
Ammonia  has  a  powerful  solvent  action  upon  sulphur,  is  alkaline 
in  its  nature,  and  very  volatile,  so  that  much  care  is  requisite  in 
handling  it.  It  has  long  been  known  to  have  a  preservative  effect 
upon  India-rubber;  for  example,  low  grade  African  rubbers  are 
often  treated  with  Ammonia  to  neutralize  the  smell,  and  also  to 
toughen  the  rubber.  In  the  cold-curing  process  a  saucer  of  Am- 
monia put  in  the  bottom  of  the  vapor  room  will  effectually  neu- 
tralize the  fumes  of  chloride  of  sulphur.  It  is  also  advised  to 
wash  vulcanite  that  has  begun  to  perish  with  an  Ammonia  solu- 
tion. Soft  rubber  goods  also  are  preserved,  according  to  Dr. 
Pol,  by  the  immersion  for  an  hour  in  a  solution  made  of  I  part  of 
ammonia,  and  2  parts  of  water. 

Sievier  dissolved  India-rubber  in  Ammonia,  leaving  it  in  a 
closed  vessel  for  a  long  time,  after  which  he  heated  the  solution 
and  distilled  the  Ammonia  gas  in  cold  water.  Concentrated  liquor 
of  Ammonia  is  added  to  milk  of  the  rubber  tree  to  preserve  it  for 
transportation.  Where  vegetable  fibers  are  reduced  to  cellulose 
and  mixed  with  India-rubber,  the  rubber  is  first  steeped  in  Am- 
monia and  then  dissolved  in  some  suitable  solvent.  Newton  mix- 
ed Ammonia  with  India-rubber  and  Gutta-percha,  and  then  treat- 
ed the  gum  with  chlorine,  making  a  white  hard  compound  which 
he  claimed  would  stand  all  varieties  of  climates,  acids,  greases,  etc. 

ANILINE. — A  colorless  oily  liquid,  manufactured  chiefly  from 
coal  tar  or  nitrobenzene.  It  is  a  base  from  which  the  brilliant 
aniline  dyes  are  made.  Aniline  used  by  Parkes  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  Parkesine,  is  also  a  solvent  for  Gutta-percha. 

ARSENATE  OF  POTASH. — It  is  a  very  soluble  compound  of 
arsenic  with  potash  and  forms  what  is  known  as  Fowler's  solu- 
tion. In  the  dry  state  it  is  a  white  powder  soluble  in  alcohol  up 
to  4  per  cent.  Arsenate  of  Potash  was  used  by  Forster,  among 
his  earliest  experiments,  to  partially  vulcanize  a  compound  made 
up  of  India-rubber  and  shellac. 

BARIUM  CHLORIDE. — A  white  crystaline  powder,  insoluble  in 
alcohol  but  soluble  in  hot  water,  78  per  cent.,  and  in  cold  38  per 
cent.  Its  specific  gravity  is  3.05.  It  is  not  of  great  technical  im- 


BARIUM   CHLORIDE— BORAX.  153 

portance,  its  principal  value  being  that  of  a  test  for  sulphuric  acid. 
To  makers  and  users  of  sulphurets  it  affords  a  ready  means  of 
determining  the  presence  of  free  sulphuric  acid,  so  liable  to  occur 
in  these  bodies  and  so  injurious  to  rubber  compounds  when  pre- 
sent. A  suspected  sulphuret  should  be  boiled  for  a  moment  with 
a  little  distilled  water,  the  water  filtered  off,  and  a  drop  or  two 
of  a  solution  of  Barium  Chloride  added;  a  white  cloudiness  that 
will  settle  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder  proves  the  presence  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  such  a  sample  should  be  rejected.  Barium 
Chloride  is  a  powerful  poison.  Used  with  size  and  acid  resin  as  a 
shower-proof  mixture. 

BISULPHATE  OF  POTASH. — A  white  powder  obtained  as  a  by 
product  in  chemical  manufacturing.  Soluble  in  twice  its  weight 
of  cold  water,  and  in  half  its  weight  of  boiling  water.  It  contains 
sulphuric  acid  so  loosely  held  in  combination  that  it  is  driven  off 
upon  heating.  Its  specific  gravity  is  2.16.  (See  Potash.) 

BICHROMATE  OF  POTASH. — The  principal  compound  of  chro- 
mium, which  occurs  in  the  form  of  orange  red  crystals,  that  are 
soluble  in  water  and  are  largely  used  in  dyeing.  Mixed  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  it  is  used  in  bleaching  palm  oil  and  other  fats.  Bi- 
chromate of  Potash  is  used  in  vulcanizing  the  compound  known 
as  elastic  glue;  also  used  in  Christia  gums. 

BLEACHING  POWDER. — See  Chloride  of  Lime. 

BORACIC  ACID. — This  is  found  native  in  the  vapor  which 
arises  from  certain  volcanic  rocks  in  a  saline  incrustation  in  vol- 
canic craters  and  in  combination  with  borax.  It  appears  in  the 
form  of  pure  white  leathery  crystals.  Boracic  Acid  is  used  with 
tungstate  of  ammonia,  Kauri,  borax,  and  India-rubber  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  woodite  fireproof  compositions. 

BORAX,  or  BIBORATE  OF  SODA. — Sometimes  also  called  tincal ; 
a  compound  of  soda  and  boracic  acid.  The  purified  commercial 
article  contains  about  47  per  cent,  of  water  of  crystalization  and  is 
usually  in  the  form  of  large  odorless  crystals,  or  a  white  powder 
obtained  by  grinding.  The  crystaline  form  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
i  .69.  Borax  is  quite  soluble  in  water,  but  not  in  alcohol  or  any  of 
the  common  solvents  for  rubber.  At  a  moderate  heat  Borax  loses 
water,  and  separates  as  a  spongy  mass  called  calcined  borax,  while 
at  a  higher  heat  it  melts  into  what  is  known  as  borax  glass.  Im- 


154  ACIDS    AND    ALKALIES. 

mense  deposits  of  it  are  found  in  the  United  States,  and  it  is  also 
found  in  India,  Hungary,  and  other  parts  of  the  world.  A  good 
waterproof  cement  is  made  of  a  mixture  of  Borax  and  shellac  boil- 
ed in  water.  Borax,  or  a  solution  of  biborate  of  sodium,  has  the 
property  of  dissolving  many  resins.  Lascelles- Scott  describes  the 
manner  in  which  an  emulsion  of  rubber  may  be  preserved  by  a 
Borax  solution.  To  a  solution  of  rubber,  in  any  one  of  the  com- 
mon solvents,  a  small  portion  of  alcohol  is  added.  This  is  mixed 
with  a  2~5th  saturated  solution  of  Borax,  previously  heated  from 
120°  to  140°  F.  This  is  agitated  until  the  temperature  has  cooled 
down  to  the  temperature  of  the  air.  From  3^  per  cent,  to  4-J  per 
cent,  of  India-rubber  should  be  present  in  the  fluid  when  finished. 
A  higher  strength  quickly  separates  and  sometimes  causes  the 
entire  quantity  to  coagulate.  Madagascar  or  Sierra  Leone  rub- 
bers are  advised  for  Borax  solutions.  Solutions  of  berated  rub- 
ber are  adapted  for  waterproofing  and  for  preserving  mats,  ma- 
rine bedding,  etc.  Borax  is  also  advised  for  preserving  rubber 
milk  from  coagulation.  It  is  also  an  important  ingredient  in  the 
water  varnishes  used  for  luster  finish,  for  surface  coats,  army 
blankets,  etc. ;  is  used  in  waterproofing  compounds  composed  of 
rubber,  boracic  acid,  Kauri,  tungstate  of  ammonia;  mixed  with 
Gutta-percha  and  shellac,  it  was  used  by  Hancock  as  an  insulat- 
ing material. 

CARBOLIC  ACID,  also  known  as  Phenic  Acid,  is  obtained  chief- 
ly during  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal.  The  liquid  has  a 
hot  burning  taste,  and  is  largely  used  for  its  antiseptic  qualities. 
If  white  crystalized  carbolic  acid  is  added  to  the  paste  from  which 
matrices  in  rubber  stamp  making  are  manufactured,  it  preserves 
the  mixture  for  a  long  time.  Carbolic  Acid  is  used  as  a  preserva- 
tive of  rubber  sap,  where  it  is  coagulated  by  the  process  employed 
by  The  Orinoco  Co.,  in  Venezuela.  Carbolic  Acid  has  also 
been  used  in  connection  with  a  little  ammonia  to  increase  the  elas- 
ticity of  low  grade  African  gums,  being  used  as  a  solution  before 
the  gums  are  washed.  It  is  also  used  for  treating  fabrics,  such 
as  hose  linings  for  fire  and  mill  hose,  to  prevent  deterioration  and 
rotting.  Used  in  certain  fiber-made  substitutes. 

CARBONATE  OF  AMMONIA,  obtained  during  the  dry  distilla- 
tion of  bones,  is  a  white  crystaline  powder  of  very  penetrating 


CARBONATES— CAUSTIC    SODA.  155 

smell,  from  which  quality  it  takes  its  popular  name  of  smelling 
salts.  Exposed  to  the  air,  it  yields  ammonia  and  absorbs  water, 
becoming  superficially  converted  into  bicarbonate.  It  is  used  in- 
dustrially for  the  removal  of  grease  from  cloth  and  cleaning 
woolen  fabrics.  Carbonate  of  Ammonia  is  used  also  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sponge  rubber,  and  in  hollow  work,  where  its  expan- 
sive force  is  utilized  to  effectually  mold  the  article. 

CARBONATE  OF  SODA. — Also  called  Sal-soda,  washing  soda. 
Prepared  from  cryolite,  salt,  etc.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.45,  when 
crystalized.  The  crystaline  form  contains  64  per  cent,  of  water 
of  crystalization,  of  which  one-half  is  driven  off  by  gentle  heat- 
ing. It  is  a  white  crystaline  substance  and  alkaline  taste.  It  is 
found  in  the  ashes  of  many  plants,  is  produced  artificially  in  large 
quantities  from  common  salt,  and  is  used  as  an  alkaline  agent  in 
many  chemical  industries.  Rubber,  burnt  umber,  Japan,  and  a 
coloring  matter  are  mixed  with  a  certain  proportion  of  Sal-soda 
for  a  waterproofing  composition.  Under  the  common  name  sale- 
ratus,  Carbonate  of  Soda  is  used  as  follows:  Instead  of  sunning 
surface  goods,  like  rubber  coats  and  blankets,  they  are  often 
brushed  over  with  a  mixture  of  saleratus  and  powdered  charcoal 
right  after  the  stock  leaves  the  calender.  Sometimes  the  saleratus 
is  left  out,  and  only  the  charcoal  is  used. 

CAUSTIC  SODA. — The  chief  use  of  this,  in  the  manufacture  of 
rubber  goods,  is  in  the  dissolving  of  sulphur  that  is  formed  on 
the  surface  of  goods,  and  which  is  known  as  bloom.  According 
to  H.  L.  Terry,  F.  I.  C,  the  bulk  of  the  alkali  supplied  to  rubber 
manufacturers  in  England  is  used  in  removing  the  sulphur  from 
elastic  thread.  Of  course  it  is  used  in  treating  tobacco  pouches, 
fine  sheet  articles,  and  blacks,  reds,  or  maroons,  that  should  have 
a  good  clear  color.  The  boiling  of  rubber  goods  is  usually  done 
in  wooden  tanks  in  which  steam  can  be  passed,  and  sometimes  in 
slate  tanks,  as  iron  is  attacked  by  the  alkali.  On  good  grades  of 
rubber  caustic  soda  has  no  action  at  all ;  where  a  large  quantity  of 
resin  is  present,  however,  it  may  dissolve  some  of  them,  forming 
resinates  of  soda.  Heavily  compounded  rubbers,  whether  they 
contain  substitutes,  gums,  or  compounds,  unless  they  are  abso- 
lutely inert,  are  also  liable  to  be  attacked  through  the  dissolution 
of  their  ingredients.  Camille  describes  a  process  whereby  shoddy 


156  ACIDS    AND    ALKALIES. 

is  treated  with  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  in  devulcanization. 
In  this,  the  rubber  is  boiled  several  hours  in  a  solution  of  caustic 
soda,  the  result  being  that  it  will  sheet  when  the  process  is  com- 
pleted. Rostaing  purified  Gutta-percha  by  boiling  several  hours 
in  caustic  soda,  or  in  a  mixture  of  caustic  soda  and  potash  in 
water. 

CATECHU,  or  CUTCH. — Known  formerly  as  Japan  earth. 
Made  from  the  sap  of  an  East  Indian  tree,  and  used  chiefly  in 
dyeing.  Is  very  astringent,  and  is  soluble  in  water.  It  appears 
in  commerce  in  dark  brown  irregular  lumps.  Contains  40  to  50 
per  cent,  of  a  peculiar  tannic  acid.  Used  in  packings  and  goods 
made  from  the  whaleite  formulas.  Johnson's  artificial  leather  was 
made  of  catechu,  rosin  oil,  linseed  oil,  turpentine,  and  starch, 
mixed  with  a  little  hot  Gutta-percha.  A  number  of  other  com- 
pounds, both  with  and  without  India-rubber,  contain  catechu, 
but  chiefly  those  which  were  compounded  from  gelatine,  starch, 
and  gluten.  Catechu  is  mixed  with  Gutta-percha  in  solution  in 
order  to  make  it  harder. 

CAUSTIC  AMMONIA. — See  Ammonia. 

CAUSTIC  POTASH, — As  occurring  in  commerce,  it  is  a  white 
solid  substance  of  the  specific  gravity  about  2.5.  It  is  hard  and 
brittle,  and  very  destructive  to  animal  or  vegetable  substances. 
It  rapidly  takes  up  water  from  the  air,  and  may  be  used  to  obtain 
a  dry  atmosphere  in  a  confined  vessel.  It  is  also  a  greedy  absor- 
bent or  carbonic  acid,  becoming  converted  into  the  carbonate 
thereby.  Solutions  of  potash  should  be  clarified  by  allowing  im- 
purities to  subside.  Its  taste  is  bitter  and  acid  and  its  smell  un- 
pleasant. Alcoholic  Caustic  Potash  is  used  in  analysis  of  vul- 
canized India-rubber  and  was  introduced  by  Henrichs,  particu- 
larly to  separate  India-rubber  from  India-rubber  substitute. 
Caustic  Potash  is  mixed  with  flowers  of  sulphur  for  boiling  draw- 
ing rolls,  the  potash  making  the  rubber  more  solid,  while  the  sul- 
phur gave  a  peculiar  surface,  making  it  better  for  drawing.  Used 
in  water  solution  to  remove  bloom  from  cured  rubber.  It  is  also 
used  in  certain  substitutes  for  hard  rubber,  like  voltit.  Potash 
was  early  used  in  extracting  the  sulphur  from  ground  vulcanized 
rubber.  A  percentage  of  it  is  used  to-day  in  neutralizing  the  acid 
used  in  the  chemical  recovery  of  rubber. 


CHLORIDES.  157 

CHLORIDE  OF  AMMONIUM. — Also  known  as  muriate  or  hy- 
drochlorate  of  ammonia,  or  sal-ammoniac.  Obtained  largely  from 
gas  works.  Specific  gravity  1.5.  Usually  occurs  in  small  crystals 
of  a  sharp,  saline  taste.  When  dissolving  in  water  a  considerable 
reduction  of  temperature  occurs,  and  this  has  rendered  it  valuable 
for  cooling  purposes.  At  temperatures  above  212°  F.  it  is  com- 
pletely evaporated,  and  a  decomposition  occurs  into  ammonia 
and  muriatic  acid.  It  is  used  in  certain  packings  in  which  iron 
filings  are  incorporated. 

CHLORIDE  OF  CALCIUM. — A  crystaline  substance  containing 
about  50  per  cent,  of  water  of  crystalization,  which  is  lost  on  heat- 
ing to  392°  F.  The  specific  gravity  is  1.6 1,  and  that  of  the  dried 
form  2.21.  Its  extreme  attraction  for  water  makes  it  useful  in 
obtaining  a  dry  atmosphere  in  any  closed  receptacle.  Its  color 
is  white,  taste  acrid  and  sharp.  It  absorbs  ammonia  readily  and 
will  give  it  up  again  on  heating.  It  is  used  in  bookbinders'  ce- 
ments. 

CHLORIDE  OF  LIME. — Sometimes  called  bleaching  powder, 
although  this  latter  is  a  mixture  of  the  chloride  and  hypochlorite 
of  lime.  Industrially,  its  chief  use  is  for  bleaching  purposes,  de- 
pendent upon  the  amount  of  chlorine  it  contains.  Commercial 
bleaching  powder  is  a  white  powder  with  a  faint  smell  of  peculiar 
character  and  gradually  becoming  moist  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
while  it  gradually  decomposes  and  absorbs  water  and  carbonic 
acid.  Even  in  closed  vessels  decomposition  occurs,  and  some- 
times so  suddenly  and  with  such  a  rise  of  temperature  that  explo- 
sions occur.  Hence  it  should  always  be  used  fresh  and  a  guaran- 
tee obtained  from  the  vendors  (as  is  customary)  of  the  quality  of 
the  article.  Chloride  of  Lime  is  the  basis  of  a  cold  curing  pro- 
qess  known  as  Caulbry's  (which  see).  Gutta-percha  boiled  in  it 
and  then  mixed  with  rosin  and  paraffine  is  used  in  insulation. 

CHLORIDE  OF  SODIUM  (or  common  salt)  has  a  specific  gravi- 
ty of  2.3.  It  is  a  very  stable  compound,  soluble  in  water  at  the 
ordinary  temperature  to  the  extent  of  36  per  cent.,  at  the  boiling 
point  39  per  cent.  At  the  freezing  point  water  will  take  up  5-J 
per  cent,  of  common  salt.  It  is  used,  as  is  well  known,  in  coagu- 
lating many  of  the  rubber  saps.  Salt  is  viewed  with  considerable 
distrust  by  ordinary  manipulators  of  rubber.  Payne,  however, 


158  ACIDS    AND    ALKALIES. 

treated  Gutta-percha  scraps  by  boiling  water,  salt,  and  oil  of  vit- 
riol, to  get  a  solution  to  which  he  added  other  gums  and  metallic 
oxides  to  get  a  waterproofing  mixture.  Cooley  made  artificial 
leather  of  Gutta-percha  dissolved  in  resin  oil,  and  added  25  per 
cent,  or  more  of  salt,  to  which  he  added  starch  or  other  saccha- 
rine substances.  Salt,  in  the  form  of  brine,  is  used  in  washing  the 
compound  known  as  tremenol  as  a  last  process.  It  is  also  used  in 
shower-proofing  compounds,  in  connection  with  paraffine  and  sul- 
phuric acid. 

CHLORIDE  OF  ZINC  was  known  formerly  as  butter  of  zinc.  It 
is  formed  by  burning  zinc  in  chlorine  gas,  or  by  dissolving  it  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  the  solution  being  evaporated.  The  anhydrous 
form  is  a  whitish  gray  mass  which  readily  fuses,  and  can  be  sub- 
limed at  a  high  temperature.  It  deliquesces  on  exposure  to  the 
air,  and  is  readily  soluble  in  water,  the  solution  having  a  bitter 
taste,  and  acting  in  a  concentrated  state  as  a  powerful  caustic. 
One  of  the  best  processes  ever  known  for  reducing  the  fiber  in 
recovering  rubber  was  that  in  which  this  substance  was  employed 
instead  of  acid.  A  boiling  solution  of  Chloride  of  Zinc  was  used 
in  deodorizing  by  Brockedon,  who  also  mixed  it  with  Gutta- 
percha,  adding  sulphur  and  vulcanizing  the  gum.  Hancock  also 
subjected  Gutta-percha  for  a  moment  or  two  to  binoxide  of  nitro- 
gen, then  immersing  it  in  a  boiling  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc, 
which  he  claimed  greatly  improved  its  quality. 

CHROMIC  ACID  is  not  readily  obtained  in  a  free  state,  but 
forms  many  well-known  salts,  such  as  chrome  yellow,  for  in- 
stance. It  is  analogous  to  sulphuric  acid.  Vulcanized  rubber 
immersed  in  it  at  140°  F.,  remained  a  month,  and  was  apparently 
unharmed.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  substitute 
known  as  corkaline. 

CITRIC  ACID. — An  organic  acid  that  occurs  in  lemons,  limes, 
and  many  other  fruits.  It  is  readily  soluble  in  water,  and  has  an 
intensely  sour  taste.  Has  been  used  in  the  coagulation  of  Balata. 
Vulcanized  rubber  immersed  in  it  at  140°  F.,  remained  a  month, 
and  was  apparently  unharmed. 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR. — A  white  crystaline  substance  with  an 
acrid  taste,  a  very  common  ingredient  in  baking  powders.  Is 
called  also  Potassium  Bitartrate.  Is  made  from  purified  tartar,  or 


CREAM    OF    TARTAR— LIME.  159 

argol.     Is  used  in  artificial  ivory  made  from  resins  in  solution. 

CRYSTALS  OF  SODA. — See  Carbonate  of  Soda. 

CYANIDE  OF  POTASSIUM. — A  white  crystaline  substance,  very 
poisonous,  of  a  sharp  bitter  taste.  It  is  very  easily  decomposed, 
even  on  exposure  to  the  air  absorbing  carbonic  acid  and  yielding 
prussic  acid,  which  gives  the  salt  its  peculiar  smell  of  peach  ker- 
nels. The  vapors  thus  given  off  are  very  poisonous.  Cyanide  of 
Potassium  was  used  by  Brooman  "to  give  clearness  to  the  gum 
which  was  made  from  ground  vulcanized  rubber,  which  had  been 
treated  with  alkalies  and  acids  to  remove  sulphur  and  adulterants." 

FLUORIDE  OF  SILICON  is  a  colorless  gas.  What  is  used  in  the 
arts  is  a  solution  in  water,  forming  a  very  sour  fuming  liquid, 
acting  like  a  strong  acid.  It  is  easily  decomposed  and  may  be 
used  for  etching  glass  if  allowed  to  evaporate  upon  it  under  heat. 
It  is  prepared  from  flints  or  silica  in  some  such  form  as  sand  or 
powdered  glass.  Used  in  treating  meerschaum  and  paper  pulp 
which,  combined  with  certain  resins,  forms  an  artificial  ivory. 

FORMIC  ACID  obtains  its  name  from  the  fact  that  it  was  first 
obtained  from  the  red  ant.  It  is  a  fuming  liquid  with  a  pungent 
odor,  bailing  at  212°  F.  It  is  now  made  from  a  mixture  of 
starch,  binoxide  of  manganese,  sulphuric  acid,  and  water.  It  has 
been  suggested  as  an  ideal  precipitant  for  rubber  milk.  It  is  quite 
volatile,  could  be  easily  washed  out,  and  would  be  found  more 
beneficial  to  the  rubber  than  many  of  the  alkaline  solutions  now 
used. 

HYDROCHLORATE  OF  AMMONIA. — Another  name  for  Muriate 
of  Ammonia  or  Sal-ammoniac.  (See  Chloride  of  Ammonium.) 

HYPOCHLORITE  OF  LIME. — One  of  the  principal  constituents 
of  bleaching  powder.  It  does  not  exist  alone.  (See  Chloride  of 
Lime.) 

HYDROSULPHURET  OF  LIME. — Lime  that  has  been  treated 
with  hydrogen  sulphide.  It  is  an  offensive  smelling  substance, 
of  a  dirty  greenish  grey  appearance,  and  is  obtained  in  the  process 
of  purifying  coal  gas.  It  decomposes  easily,  giving  off  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen.  It  will  absorb  bisulphide  of  carbon  and  is  solu- 
ble in  alcohol.  Its  liability  to  oxidize  should  render  it  of  ques- 
tionable use  in  compounding.  It  was  used  by  Hancock  in  vulcan- 
izing India-rubber. 


160  ACIDS    AND    ALKALIES. 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID  is  known  usually  by  its  trade  name  of 
muriatic  acid.  It  is  also  known  as  chlorhydric  acid,  and  spirits 
of  salt.  It  is  one  of  the  principal  mineral  acids.  Used  in  the  arts 
in  the  form  of  a  watery  solution,  of  which  the  strength  varies 
from  a  specific  gravity  i.oi  or  2°  Beaume  with  2.02  per  cent,  acid 
to  i. 2 1  or  26°  Beaume,  with  42.85  per  cent.  acid.  Each  .01  in- 
crease of  gravity  corresponds  to  i°  Beaume  and  2.02  per  cent, 
of  acid.  It  is  corrosive  to  the  skin  and  attacks  nearly  all  metals. 
It  has  no  action  on  caoutchouc  and  very  little  on  oxidized  linseed 
oil  if  the  acid  be  dilute.  With  soda  and  its  compounds  generally 
speaking  it  will  form  common  salt  and  with  metals  it  forms  chlo- 
rides thereof.  Hydrochloric  acid,  during  the  treatment  of  re- 
claimed rubber,  turns  whiting  into  chloride  of  lime.  As  the  chlo- 
ride is  more  soluble  than  sulphate  of  lime  much  of  it  washes  out 
during  the  vigorous  cleansing  that  the  rubber  undergoes  to  re- 
move the  free  acid.  Hydrochloric  Acid,  according  to  tests  made 
by  William  Thompson,  F.  R.  S.,  did  not  at  all  injure  India-rub- 
ber, although  it  was  kept  in  it  at  a  temperature  of  140°  F.  for  a 
month.  Concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  has  but  little  action  on 
Gutta-percha,  and  tubing  made  from  it  is  therefore  largely  used  in 
chemical  factories  for  running  this  acid  from  one  vessel  to  an- 
other. Hydrochloric  Acid  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  turpen- 
tine rubber,  and  in  one  of  the  last  processes  in  the  analysis  of 
vulcanized  India-rubber.  In  preparing  a  hard  rubber  compound, 
Austin  G.  Day  used  linseed,  cottonseed,  castor,  and  coal  oils ;  hy- 
drochloric and  nitric  acids;  bicarbonate  of  soda,  muriate  of  tin, 
coal  tar  asphaltum,  sulphur,  and  Gutta-percha. 

IODIDE  OF  ANTIMONY. — A  brownish  red  crystaline  mass, 
which  yields  a  cinnabar  red  powder.  It  is  soluble  in  hot  carbon 
bisulphide.  Its  specific  gravity  is  4.39.  It  was  used  by  Parkes 
in  vulcanizing  India-rubber. 

IODIDE  OF  ZINC. — A  very  unstable  substance.  A  white  gran- 
ular powder,  odorless  and  of  sharp  saline  metallic  taste.  Chiefly 
used  in  medicine.  It  was  used  by  Hancock  to  assist  in  the  vul- 
canization of  India-rubber. 

LIQUOR  OF  FLINT. — See  Silicate  of  Soda. 

MIMO-TANNIC  ACID. — See  Catechu. 

MURIATE  OF  AMMONIA. — See  Chloride  of  Ammonium. 


MURIATIC   ACID— NITRIC   ACID.  161 

MURIATIC  ACID. — See  Hydrochloric  Acid. 

NITRATE  OF  LEAD. — A  compound  of  lead  and  nitric  acid  con- 
taining 62.5  per  cent,  of  lead.  Its  specific  gravity  is  4.58.  It  has 
an  astringent  metallic  taste,  crackles  when  heated,  detonates  when 
thrown  on  red  hot  charcoal,  and  takes  fire  when  ground  with  sul- 
phur. Its  color  is  white  and  it  is  largely  used  in  dyeing  and  for 
making  chrome  yellow  (which  see).  It  is  used  with  gums  in  the 
production  of  shower-proof  mixtures  with  sugar  of  lead  and 
alum. 

NUT-GALL. — An  excrescence  formed  on  the  leaves  of  a  spe- 
cies of  oak  called  Quercus  infectonia.  It  is  used  in  the  arts  for  the 
sake  of  the  tannic  acid  it  contains.  There  are  three  varieties  in 
commerce — green,  white,  and  black.  The  black  and  the  green 
are  the  best.  Those  grown  in  warm  countries  are  the  best.  Aleppo 
galls  contain  from  60  to  66  per  cent,  of  tannic  acid.  There  is  a 
variety  of  nut-gall  known  as  Chinese,  imported  from  Japan, 
China,  and  Nepal.  The  gall  is  somewhat  bean-shaped  or  is  cover- 
ed with  a  yellow  gray  felt.  It  contains  from  60  to  70  per  cent, 
of  tannic  acid.  Nut-gall  is  used  in  certain  places  instead  of  tan- 
nin, which  see. 

NITRIC  ACID. — Chemically  an  oxide  of  nitrogen.  Technically 
a  strongly  acid  liquid  consisting  of  an  aqueous  solution  of  the  pure 
acid.  Its  action  on  different  bodies  is  various.  Some,  like  sul- 
phur, phosphorus,  carbon,  and  many  organic  substances  are  easily 
oxidized.  Tin  and  powdered  antimony  are  rapidly  converted  into 
their  oxides,  while  turpentine,  if  poured  into  the  strong  acid,  is 
attacked  with  almost  explosive  violence  with  the  evolution  of  light 
and  heat.  Straw  or  sawdust  may  become  ignited  if  impregnated 
with  this  acid.  Cotton  wool  is  converted  by  it  into  gun  cotton. 
Rubber  immersed  in  Nitric  Acid  at  a  temperature  of  140°  F.  was 
injured  in  a  few  hours,  and  in  a  few  days  its  elasticity  was  de- 
stroyed, while  at  the  end  of  the  month  it  was  reduced  to  a  pulp. 
Nitric  Acid  attacks  Gutta-percha  very  powerfully,  and  evolves 
suffocating  fumes  of  a  deep  red  color,  the  gum  meanwhile  being 
reduced  to  a  pasty  mass  which  afterwards  dries  and  becomes  very 
brittle.  According  to  H.  L.  Terry,  F.  I/  C,  Nitric  Acid  of  any 
strength  has  a  very  deleterious  effect  upon  India-rubber,  the  action 
of  the  fuming  acid  being  to  form  immediately  an  oxidized  body  of 


162  ACIDS    AND    ALKALIES. 

a  resinous  nature.  He  holds,  therefore,  that  the  weaker  acid  also 
injures  the  India-rubber,  although  of  course  in  a  less  degree. 
Nitric  Acid  is  used  in  the  treatment  of  leather  cuttings  to  reduce 
them  to  a  glutinous  mass  before  being  mixed  with  India-rubber, 
and  is  also  used  in  making  certain  substitutes. 

OIL  OF  VITRIOL. — See  Sulphuric  Acid. 

OLETC  ACID. — An  acid  found  in  certain  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble oils,  such  as  olive  oil,  sperm  oil,  etc.  It  has  been  used  in  cer- 
tain substitutes  for  hard  rubber,  like  voltit,  and  by  Hunt  for  re- 
covering waste  vulcanized  rubber  under  heat,  methylated  spirit 
being  added  later  to  precipitate  the  rubber,  which  was  then  wash- 
ed in  weak  caustic  soda. 

OXALIC  ACID  occurs  as  transparent,  colorless  prisms,  with  a 
very  sour  taste,  soluble  in  both  cold  and  hot  water.  It  is  pro- 
duced by  either  the  action  of  the  hydrate  of  potash,  or  of  nitric 
acid  upon  most  organic  compounds.  It  is  very  poisonous.  Gutta- 
percha  was  cleansed  by  Lorimer's  process  by  boiling  in  water  mix- 
ed with  this  acid. 

OXALATE  OF  LIME. — Quick  lime  slaked  by  water  in  which  is 
oxalic  acid  is  given  this  name.  Used  in  certain  Gutta-percha 
compounds. 

PERMANGANATE  OF  POTASH  occurs  in  dark  red  prisms  of  a 
greenish  color  which,  when  dissolved  in  water,  gives  a  purple  red. 
It  is  a  decided  oxidizer,  and  is  used  as  a  disinfectant.  It  is  also 
called  chamelon  mineral.  Used  in  certain  artificial  leathers 

PEROXIDE  OF  HYDROGEN. — This  is  a  powerful  oxidizing 
agent,  largely  used  as  a  bleaching  agent,  and  also  as  an  antichlor 
for  use  after  chlorine  bleaching.  It  comes  in  the  form  of  a  color- 
less liquid,  and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.45.  Neither  the  alka- 
line nor  the  acid  solutions  of  this  reagent  seem  to  impair  vul- 
canized India-rubber.  In  certain  cases  Peroxide  of  Hydrogen 
has  been  used  in  removing  the  bloom  from  rubber,  which  it  does 
most  effectively;  besides,  it  seems  to  penetrate  the  surface  of  the 
rubber  and  dissolve  the  sulphur.  It  also  has  a  curious  effect  on 
colors,  brightening  some  reds  wonderfully,  dulling  others,  and 
rendering  whites  much  whiter.  One  curious  effect  that  it  has 
upon  India-rubber  is  to  bring  out  any  surface  imperfections  in  a 
marked  degree. 


PHOSPHATE  OF  SODA— SALICYLIC  ACID.       163 

PHOSPHATE  OF  SODA. — A  crystaline  colorless  substance  con- 
taining 60  per  cent,  of  water,  which  is  given  up  on  heating  to 
248°  F.,  leaving  behind  a  dry  mass.  The  commercial  article  fre- 
quently contains  sulphate  of  soda  as  an  impurity.  The  crystals 
have  a  specific  gravity  of  1.5,  melt  at  95°  F.,  and  are  readily  solu- 
ble in  water.  By  long  drying  at  113°  F.  the  water  of  crystaliza- 
tion  may  be  entirely  driven  off.  The  presence  of  this  material 
is  called  for  in  a  certain  compound  for  dental  vulcanite,  where  it 
is  incorporated  with  rubber,  sulphur,  and  phosphate  of  lime,  the 
idea  being  that  less  sulphur  is  required  than  in  the  ordinary  com- 
pounds. 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID. — See  Phosphorus. 

POTASH. — This  substance,  a  carbonate  of  potassium,  is  usu- 
ally met  with  commercially  in  small  colorless  crystals.  It  is  pre- 
pared in  a  variety  of  ways  and  forms,  the  basis  from  which  is 
prepared  what  is  called  caustic  potash.  Pearl  ash  is  a  crude  form 
of  potash  mixed  with  the  caustic  variety  and  a  sulphuret  of  potas- 
sium. Used  in  certain  proofing  compounds  where  low  heat  is  re- 
quired for  cure.  It  was  used  by  Charles  Hancock,  mixed  with 
water  in  a  bath,  to  improve  the  quality  of  Gutta-percha.  He 
found,  by  boiling  the  Gutta-percha  in  such  a  bath  for  an  hour, 
that  it  did  not  oxidize  in  the  open  air  as  badly.  An  old-fashioned 
process  for  treating  unvulcanized  thread  was  to  steep  it  in  a  hot 
solution  of  carbonate  of  potash,  which  greatly  increased  its 
strength.  (See  Caustic  Potash.) 

QUICK  LIME  is  the  impure  oxide  of  calcium  obtained  by  heat- 
ing or  burning  chalk,  marble,  or  limestone,  or  any  carbonate  of 
calcium.  Its  well-known  attraction  for  water  renders  it  unstable 
but  also  valuable  where  dying  qualities  are  desired.  Blizzard 
claimed  to  be  able  to  make  a  perfectly  transparent  rubber  by  treat- 
ing it  with  soda  and  water,  in  which  was  a  little  Quick  Lime. 

RENNET  is  made  from  the  inner  lining  of  the  true  stomach 
of  the  sucking  calf  and  gets  its  value  from  the  gastric  juice  con- 
tained thereni.  The  membrane,  after  treatment,  is  salted  and 
stretched  out  to  dry.  It  is  advised  in  the  Vaughn  process  for 
coagulating  Balata. 

SALICYLIC  ACID  is  obtained  from  the  creeping  plant  known  as 
wintergreen.  It  is  prepared  from  the  oil  of  wintergreen  (oil  of 


1 64  ACIDS    AND    ALKALIES. 

Gaultheria),  which  is  distilled  in  large  quantities  in  Luzerne 
county,  Pa.  It  is  soluble  in  the  following  proportions:  I  part 
of  the  acid  dissolves  in  450  of  water,  or  2.4  of  alcohol.  It  melts 
at  312°  to  314°  F.  Salicylic  Acid  was  used  in  an  artificial  leather 
compound  for  reducing  leather  dust  to  a  paste,  after  which  it  was 
mixed  with  glue  under  heat,  and  treated  to  an  alkaline  solution. 

SAL  AMMONIAC. — See  Chloride  of  Ammonium. 

SALT. — See  Chloride  of  Sodium. 

SALTPETER  is  niter  or  potassium  nitrate.  It  is  a  crystaline 
substance,  white,  and  having  a  saline  taste,  and  is  a  very  strong 
oxidizer.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  elaterite.  In 
Gridley's  process  for  recovering  rubber,  by  exposing  it  to  flame, 
saltpeter  was  added  to  remove  the  smell. 

SALERATUS. — See  Carbonate  of  Soda. 

SAL  SODA. — See  Carbonate  of  Soda. 

SODA. — See  Carbonate  of  Soda. 

SODIUM  HYPOSULPHITE. — A  i  per  cent,  solution  is  used  for 
removing  traces  of  chlorine  where  its  presence  is  suspected  in 
rubber. 

SOLUBLE  GLASS  (known  also  as  waterglass)  is  a  silicate  of 
soda  or  potash.  It  is  usually  sold  in  solutions  of  varying  density, 
the  commonest  being  33°  and  66°,  by  which  is  meant  that  the  solu- 
tion contains  either  one  third  or  two  thirds  solid  waterglass. 
Acids  readily  precipitate  the  silica  from  these  solutions  as  a  gela- 
tinous mass.  It  is  used  in  certain  shower-proof  compounds  and  in 
compounds  of  the  Algin  (which  see)  type. 

STEARIC  ACID. — See  Stearine. 

SULPHATE  OF  ALUMINA. — The  active  principle  of  alum. 
Often  sold  as  concentrated  alum.  Occurs  commercially  as  white 
square  cakes,  somewhat  transparent,  and  capable  of  being  cut 
with  a  knife.  Readily  soluble  in  water,  and  contains  a  small 
quantity  of  free  sulphuric  acid,  potassa,  and  soda  alum.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  about  4;  water  of  crystalization  48  per  cent.  Its 
composition  indicates  a  usefulness  in  compounding  sponge  rub- 
bers. Used  in  linseed  oil  compounds,  for  wagon  covers.  (See 
Alum.) 

SUGAR  OF  LEAD. — This  is  used  in  certain  rainproof  com- 
pounds, one  of  which  is  16  parts  of  compounded  rubber,  128 


SULPHATE  OF  COPPER— SULPHURIC  ACID.     165 

parts  of  paraffine  wax,  i  part  of  Sugar  of  Lead,  I  part  of  "alum 
in  powder.  India-rubber  compound  contains  no  sulphur.  Used 
also  in  artificial  rubber  and  artificial  ivory.  (  See  Acetate  of  Lead. ) 

SULPHATE  OF  COPPER. — Sometimes  called  blue  or  Cyprus 
vitriol.  Occurs  in  commerce  in  masses  of  large  blue  crystals  hav- 
ing a  specific  gravity  of  2.28,  and  containing  36  per  cent,  of  water 
of  crystalization,  and  a  varying  additional  percentage  of  entangled 
moisture.  Heated  for  some  time  at  212°  F.  all  the  entangled  wa- 
ter may  be  driven  off,  together  with  four-fifths  of  the  water  of 
crystalization,  the  residue  being  a  bluish  white  powder.  Sul- 
phate of  Copper  is  used  in  attaching  rubber  to  iron  during  vul- 
canization. 

SULPHATE  OF  SODA  occurs  commercially  in  colorless  crystals 
which  deteriorate  in  contact  with  the  air,  and  hence  should  be 
kept  in  well  closed  vessels.  It  contains  a  very  large  amount — 
nearly  60  per  cent. — of  water  of  crystalization,  which  is  yielded 
on  heating  to  302°  F.  Its  reaction  is  alkaline.  Sulphate  of  Soda 
was  used  by  Hancock  in  vulcanizing  Gutta-percha. 

SILICATE  OF  SODA. — See  Soluble  Glass. 

SOAPS. — Various  kinds  of  soaps  are  used  in  rubber  manu- 
facture. Pure  Castile  soap,  for  instance,  is  dissolved  in  rain  wa- 
ter and  made  into  a  soft  soap  that  is  used  to  "slick"  molds  that 
the  rubber,  during  vulcanization,  may  not  adhere  to  them.  Some 
manufacturers  use  by  preference  white  soda  soap  made  from 
caustic  soda  and  olive  oil.  Resin  soaps  are  also  used  in  certain 
shower-proof  compounds.  A  further  use  for  soap  is  in  the  manu- 
facture of  water  varnishes  for  luster  coats  and  blankets.  A  soap 
compound  for  wagon  covers  is  made  of  50  pounds  of  soap  dis- 
solved in  15  gallons  of  water,  heated  to  250°  F.,  to  which  is 
added  25  pounds  of  sulphide  of  zinc.  A  half  pint  of  rubber  dis- 
solved in  olive  oil  by  heat  is  added  to  each  gallon  of  the  above 
mixture.  Whiting,  lampblack,  or  coloring  matters  may  be  added. 
Vulcanized  rubber,  beeswax,  resin  oil,  argillaceous  earth,  and  al- 
kaline soap  form  the  basis  of  Sorel's  substitute  for  rubber. 

SULPHURIC  ACID  (called  also  Oil  of  Vitriol),  when  pure,  is 
a  colorless  oily  looking  heavy  liquid  of  a  sharp,  sour  taste.  It  is 
very  corrosive,  and  has  a  great  attraction  for  water;  hence  wood 
and  other  organic  bodies  are  charred  by  its  depriving  them  of 


166  ACIDS    AND    ALKALIES. 

their  water.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  commercial  acid  is  usu- 
ally about  1.83,  or  66°  Beaume,  containing  94  per  cent,  of  acid. 
Sulphuric  Acid  is  used  in  the  coagulation  of  Madagascar  rubber. 
The  Orinoco  Co.  are  also  said  to  coagulate  India-rubber  by  mix- 
ing the  milk  of  the  Hevea  with  sulphuric  and  carbolic  acid.  Com- 
mercial Sulphuric  Acid  is  said  to  coagulate  55  times  its  volume 
of  gum,  while  the  carbolic  acid  acts  as  an  antiseptic  in  the  juice, 
improving  its  keeping  qualities.  It  is  a  question  whether  rubber 
treated  this  way  is  as  good  as  that  obtained  by  the  smoking  pro- 
cess. Rubber  immersed  in  Sulphuric  Acid  at  140°  F.  remained  a 
month  and  came  out  stronger,  apparently,  than  when  it  went  in. 
Sulphuric  Acid  is  used  in  paste  blacking,  mixed  with  boneblack, 
vinegar,  molasses,  and  caoutchouc  oil.  Concentrated  Sulphuric 
Acid  colors  Gutta-percha  brown,  throwing  off  at  the  same  time 
Sulphuric  Acid  fumes!  Nevertheless,  a  paste  of  this  acid  and 
charcoal  was  added  by  Hancock  to  Gutta-percha  to  make  it  pli- 
able. Sulphuric  Acid  may  be  expected  to  attack  vulcanized  rub- 
ber compounds  in  which  there  are  large  proportions  of  chalk,  lead 
oxides,  or  barytes.  Sulphuric  Acid  is  very  largely  used  in  des- 
troying the  fiber  found  in  ground  waste  rubber ;  indeed  it  is  the 
basis  of  what  is  known  as  the  acid  reclaiming  process.  When 
thus  used  the  acid  turns  whiting  into  sulphate  of  lime. 

TANNIC  ACID. — See  Tannin. 

TANNIN  includes  a  number  of  substances,  some  of  which  are 
crystaline  and  others  amorphous,  with  a  marked  astringent  taste, 
and  no  smell.  The  solutions  are  acid,  soluble  in  water  and  alco- 
hol, and  yields  precipitates  with  most  metallic  oxides.  It  is  the 
active  principle  of  oak  bark,  hemlock  bark,  catechu,  and  many 
other  materials  usually  used  for  tanning  hides.  Pure  Tannin  is 
a  light  powder  of  a  yellow  greenish  hue,  soluble  in  water,  alcohol, 
and  ether.  Its  solution  precipitates  glue.  It  is  used  with  sul- 
phate of  alumina,  waterglass,  and  glue  in  shower-proofing.  Tan- 
nin has  been  claimed  to  be  injurious  to  rubber,  the  reason  being 
that  rubber  thread  used  in  gorings  is  often  destroyed  at  points 
close  to  its  junction  with  the  leather.  It  is  more  likely,  however, 
that  it  is  the  oil  or  oleic  acid  that  effects  the  destruction.  Tannin 
was  largely  employed  by  Austin  G.  Day  in  many  of  his  "kerite" 
compounds  with  excellent  effect.  It  is  also  used  in  the  manufac- 


TARTARIC  A  CID—TUNGSTIC  A  CID.  1 6 7 

ture  of  certain  puncture  fluids,  together  with  glue  and  glycerine. 

TARTARIC  ACID  is  found  usually  in  the  form  of  transparent 
colorless  prisms,  which  have  an  agreeable  acid  taste,  are  not  af- 
fected by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  are  soluble  in  either 
alcohol  or  water.  Nitric  acid  or  peroxide  of  lead  act  upon  Tar- 
taric  Acid,  turning  it  into  formic  and  carbonic  acid.  This  acid 
is  very  abundant  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  being  found  in  many 
fruits.  Used  under  Vaughn's  patent  in  coagulating  Balata.  Vul- 
canized rubber  immersed  in  Tartaric  Acid  at  140°  F.  remained  a 
month,  and  was  apparently  unharmed. 

TUNGSTATE  OF  AMMONIA. — A  crystaline  body  which  is  very 
soluble  in  water  and  becomes  covered  with  a  white  bloom  on  ex- 
posure to  the  air.  Used  with  boracic  acid,  kauri,  borax,  and  rub- 
ber in  the  production  of  the  woodite  fireproof  compositions. 

TUNGSTATE  OF  SODA. — Prepared  commercially  from  wqlfram 
and  soda  ash;  usually  contains  about  14  per  cent,  water  of  cry- 
stalization;  and  is  in  the  form  of  colorless  crystals.  Mixed  with 
a  solvent  such  as  methylated  ether,  it  is  added  to  soluble  gun 
cotton,  castor  oil,  and  gum  copal,  forming  a  substitute  for  India- 
rubber. 

TUNGSTIC  ACID  is  derived  chiefly  from  wolfram,  which  is  a 
tungstate  of  iron  and  manganese.  Tungstic  Acid  is  analogous  to 
sulphuric  and  chromic  acid.  It  has  been  used  in  connection  with 
paraffine,  gelatine,  and  metallic  oxides  in  proofing  compounds. 


CHAPTER   X. 

VEGETABLE,  MINERAL,  AND  ANIMAL  OILS  USED  IN  RUBBER  COMPOUNDS 

AND  SOLUTIONS. 

THE  use  of  oils  in  the  rubber  manufacture  has  kept  pace  fully 
with  the  use  of  gums,  substitutes,  and  reclaimed  rubber.  The  ad- 
dition of  earthy  or  metallic  or  vegetable  ingredients  in  dry  mix- 
ing has  rendered  many  a  good  rubber  somewhat  intractable — a 
fault  which  the  right  oil  has  often  rectified.  As  a  rule,  vegetable 
oils  are  chosen,  as  they  are  rarely  harmful  to  the  gum.  Many 
mineral  oils  are  also  freely  incorporated  in  certain  compounds. 
Animal  oils  have  always  been  viewed  with  more  or  less  sus- 
picion, however,  and  with  good  reason,  for  manufacturers  have 
constantly  before  them  rubber  goods  that  have  lost  their  life  and 
elasticity  through  contact  with  lubricants  made  of  such  oils  and 
fats.  Nevertheless  certain  of  them  may  be  and  are  used.  The 
essential  or  volatile  oils  are  used  to  a  certain  extent  in  rubber 
manufacture.  These  oils,  as  a  rule,  are  liquids  which  give  the 
peculiar  odors  of  plants  from  which  they  are  derived.  Their  use 
in  rubber  is  to  impart  to  it  a  pleasing  odor. 

ALUMINUM  LANOLATE. — This  is  a  product  of  French  wool 
grease  (which  see),  made  by  adding  a  solution  of  alum.  After 
the  addition  of  the  alum,  it  falls  in  a  brown  precipitate.  It  is  then 
dissolved  in  mineral  oil,  forming  a  jelly-like  mass  which  is  said  to 
compound  readily  with  either  India-rubber  or  Gutta-percha,  and 
is  soluble  in  any  of  their  solvents.  It  is  possible  that  this  may 
have  some  both  softening  and  preservative  influences  on  India- 
rubber,  as  is  claimed,  but  it  should  be  used  with  considerable 
caution. 

ANHYDROUS  PARAFFINE  OIL. — Water-free  paraffine  oil 
(which  see.) 

BIRCH  OIL. — The  fine  white  bark  of  the  birch  tree 
yields  a  red  oil,  nearly  one-fourth  of  yhich  consists  of  the  sap 
phenol,  which  gives  the  well-known  odor  to  Russia  leather.  The 
residue,  or  green  part  of  the  birch,  yields  neither  acid  nor  alkaloid, 
and  forms  with  alcohol  a  fluid  solution  which,  when  once  dried, 
is  unacted  on  by  alcohol.  It  is  chiefly  obtained  from  northern 

168 


BIRCH  OIL— CASTOR  OIL.  169 

Europe  and  Siberia,  and  has  recently  been  made  also  in  Germany 
and  Austria,  where  it  is  known  as  Jackten  oil.  This  substance 
will  unite  with  the  most  brilliant  colors,  and  has  been  used  in 
France  for  waterproofing  textile  fabrics.  In  connection  with  shel- 
lac, resin,  and  aniline,  it  is  used  in  the  form  of  a  substitute  for 
Gutta-percha  in  insulation. 

BLOWN  OILS. — These  are  prepared  by  heating  fixed  oils  in  a 
jacketed  kettle  and  blowing  a  current  of  air  through  the  fluid. 
Under  this  treatment,  oils  become  much  more  dense  and  also  vis- 
cous; indeed,  in  many  physical  aspects,  they  resemble  castor  oil, 
but  differ  in  that  they  can  be  mixed  with  mineral  oils  and  as  a 
rule  are  not  easily  soluble  in  alcohol.  Blown  oils  made  from  lin- 
seed oil,  rape  oil,  poppyseed  oil,  and  cottonseed  oil  are  sometimes 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber  substitutes  instead  of  the  raw 
oils.  Known  also  as  Thickened  Oils,  Base  Oils,  Soluble  Castor 
Oil,  etc. 

BONE  OIL  is  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  animal  gelatinous 
substances,  principally  in  the  calcining  of  bones  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  boneblack.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.97.  It  is  sometimes 
called  Dippers  Oil  (which  see.) 

CAMPHOR  OIL. — A  liquid  of  a  light  reddish  brown  with  a 
yellowish  tint,  a  strong  odor  like  camphor,  and  a  bitter  camphor- 
like  taste.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.94.  Japanese  oil  varies  in 
color  from  colorless  through  pale  straw,  yellow,  to  black,  and  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  0.898  for  the  colorless  to  0.99  for  the  very 
dark.  This  oil  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  celluloid  varnishes, 
paints,  lampblacks,  etc.  It  is  used  also  as  an  adulterant  for  such 
oils  as  sassafras  oil.  It  is  one  of  the  best  solvents  for  resins,  and 
dissolves  46  per  cent,  of  rosin,  9  per  cent,  copal,  and  35  per  cent, 
of  mastic. 

CAOUTCHOUC  OIL. — Made  by  digesting  55  parts  of  India- 
rubber  in  450  parts  of  linseed  oil.  The  only  large  use  for  this 
oil  is  in  Germany,  particularly  in  the  army,  where  it  was  used  for 
coating  various  articles  to  prevent  their  rusting.  The  following 
substances  are  found  in  Oil  of  Caoutchouc:  Eupoine,  butylene, 
caoutchoucine,  isoprene,  caoutchine,  and  heveene. 

CASTOR  OIL. — fi.  colorless  or  pale  greenish  transparent  oil, 
very  viscous  and  thickening  on  exposure  to  the  air.  It  has  the 


170  OILS  IN  RUBBER  COMPOUNDS. 

highest  specific  gravity  of  any  known  natural  fatty  oil — 0.958. 
It  is  adulterated  frequently  with  resin  oil  and  rape,  linseed,  and 
cottonseed  oils,  especially  the  "blown"  variety.  Used  in  cheap 
proofings  without  rubber  with  Kauri  gum;  also  in  collodion  and 
rubber  proofing.  It  is  used  in  the  production  of  substitutes  like 
gum  fibrine,  and  also  with  chloride  of  sulphur  in  producing  amber 
colored  substitute. 

CHOLESTERIN. — See  Lanichol. 

COD  OIL  or  COD-LIVER  OIL  is  obtained  from  the  livers  of  cod- 
fish. Newfoundland  and  Norway  are  the  principal  manufactur- 
ing points.  .The  finest  is  a  very  pale,  clear,  golden  yellow,  the 
color  deepening  to  a  brown  in  the  second  and  third  grades.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  0.923  to  0.929.  One  part  of  oil  is  soluble  in 
from  40  to  20  parts  cold  alcohol,  or  30  to  17  parts  hot  alcohol. 
The  lower  grades  are  the  more  soluble.  It  is  much  adulterated. 
Is  compounded  with  India-rubber,  beeswax,  linseed  oil,  litharge, 
and  asphalt  as  a  waterproofing  for  leather  and  with  India-rub- 
ber, beeswax,  and  turpentine  as  a  dressing  for  hides. 

COLZA  OIL. — See  Rape  Oil. 

CORN  OIL  (also  known  as  Maize  Oil). — Made  from  the  seed 
of  Indian  corn,  the  plant  being  known  botanically  as  Zea  mays. 
There  are  two  processes  of  manufacture:  (i)  in  which  the  seed 
is  pressed  before  it  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  starch,  which 
produces  oil  of  a  golden  yellow  color,  and  (2)  where  it  is  recover- 
ed from  the  residue  of  the  fermentation  vats  where  the  corn  has 
been  used  in  the  production  of  alcohol.  This  oil  is  dissolved  spa- 
ringly in  alcohol,  but  very  readily  in  acetone.  The  oil  is  almost 
without  drying  powers.  Neither  boiling  nor  the  addition  of  lead 
when  boiling  gives  it  definite  drying  properties.  If  it  is  heated, 
however,  and  a  current  of  air  passed  through  it,  and  manganese 
borate  mingled  with  it,  it  dries  after  a  fashion.  It  is  largely  used 
at  present  in  the  manufacture  of  what  are  known  as  Corn-oil  sub- 
stitutes. 

CONSOLIDATED  OIL. — See  Stearine. 

COTTONSEED  OIL  is  made  from  the  seeds  of  the  cotton  plant, 
usually  the  Gossypium  herbaceum.  The  crude  is  of  a  ruby  red 
almost  black  color.  The  refined  is  pale  yellow  and  possesses 
a  pleasant  nutty  taste.  It  is  a  semi-drying  oil,  and  is  rarely 


COTTONSEED    OIL— FISH  OIL.  171 

adulterated  except  when  linseed  oil  is  very  cheap.  OIL  stand- 
ing it  deposits  stearine  in  waxy  flakes.  Much  used  in  mak- 
ing substitutes  for  rubber.  It  is  also  used  in  the  production  of 
artificial  elaterite,  and  with  paraffine  oil  for  canvas  proofing.  For 
Cottonseed  blown  oils  see  Blown  Oils. 

CREOSOTE  OIL  is  a  distillate  from  wood  tar.  It  is  an  oily 
liquid  with  a  smoky  taste,  and  is  antiseptic.  It  should  be  color- 
less but  is  usually  yellow  or  brown,  due  to  impurities  or  to  expo- 
sure. The  best  is  made  from  the  beech.  A  similar  oil  is  distilled 
from  coal  tar.  Mixed  with  red  oxide  of  mercury  it  has  been  used 
to  coat  the  fabric  of  which  cotton  hose  is  made  as  a  preservative ; 
with  India-rubber  and  sulphur  it  has  also  formed  an  insulating 
compound  for  telegraph  wires.  It  is  used  in  some  rubber  works 
where  it  is  arranged  that  the  fumes  of  the  naphtha  are  carried  off 
into  it,  which  it  rapidly  absorbs,  to  be  later  recovered  by  distilla- 
tion. 

EUCALIPTIA. — A  fragrant,  refreshing  volatile  oil,  twenty  to 
forty  times  as  strong  a  disinfectant  as  fluid  carbolic  acid.  It  is 
prepared  from  eucalyptus  oil. 

EUCALYPTUS  OIL. — An  aromatic  oil  found  in  the  leaves  of 
the  Eucalyptus  globulus,  in  Australia.  The  odor  of  the  oil  is  ex- 
tremely pleasant,  smelling  not  unlike  oil  of  verbena.  This  oil  is 
said  to  be  most  advantageous,  used  in  small  quantities  in  connec- 
tion with  solvents  for  India-rubber,  as  it  tends  greatly  to  accele- 
rate complete  solution.  It  also  breaks  down  refractory  samples 
of  the  gum  and  renders  all  of  the  compound  homogeneous.  It 
is  said  that  one-third  of  the  time  may  be  saved  if  from  4  to  6  per 
cent,  of  this  oil  is  used  in  the  solvent.  It  is  especially  good  for 
low-grade  gums.  It  has  also  great  solvent  power  on  all  resins 
and  gums,  including  India-rubber  and  Gutta-percha.  With  the 
addition  of  a  little  methylated  spirit  it  will  dissolve  even  Kauri 
gum,  cold.  It  is  also  used  in  dissolving  asphalt  for  photograph 
varnish. 

ESSENCE  OF  PETROLEUM. — Obtained  during  the  refining  of 
Petroleum,  and  known  also  as  petrolatum,  vaseline,  petroleum 
jelly,  etc.  (See  Vaseline.) 

FISH  OIL. — Obtained  from  all  parts  of  the  bodies  of  common 
fish  by  boiling.  Fish  whose  livers  yield  oil  commercially  do  not 


172  OILS   IN   RUBBER    COMPOUNDS. 

give  fish  oil,  and  those  bodies  that  yield  oil,  do  not  give  liver  oils. 
Principally  prepared  from  Menhaden.  Its  specific  gravity  varies 
betwen  .915  and  .930.  Fish  Oil  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
substitute  known  as  volenite.  It  is  used,  however,  only  as  a  vehi- 
cle for  carrying  resin  into  the  fiber,  being  afterwards  wholly  re- 
moved. 

FRENCH  WOOL  GREASE. — See  Lanoline. 

GLYCERINE. — A  clear  liquid  of  oily  consistency  and  sweet 
taste,  without  odor.  When  pure  it  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.26. 
The  Glycerine  of  commerce  is  a  by-product  of  the  soap  manu- 
facture, chemical  reaction  occurring  when  the  fat  is  treated  with 
a  caustic  alkali,  giving  rise  to  a  compound  of  a  fatty  acid  and 
alkali  to  form  a  soap,  while  the  Glycerine  is  at  the  same  time  lib- 
erated and  goes  into  solution.  Glycerine  is  not  acted  upon  by 
oxygen,  and  therefore  more  closely  resembles  mineral  oils,  such 
as  are  used  in  rubber  mixing,  than  it  does  the  drying  oils  that  go 
to  make  up  substitutes.  It  has  absolutely  no  solvent  action  on 
rubber. 

A  recent  German  patent  calls  for  the  addition  of  Glycerine  be- 
cause of  its  oil  resisting  qualities.  In  the  compound  used  are  6 
pounds  of  rubber,  and  i  pound  of  Glycerine,  together  with  whit- 
ing, litharge,  and  sulphur.  A  soap  made  of  Glycerine  and  an  alka- 
line fluid  is  also  used  as  a  cleansing  and  polishing  medium  in  the 
last  stages  of  the  manufacture  of  certain  cut  sheet  goods.  Gly- 
cerine combined  with  gelatine  and  borax  has  been  used  as  a  wash 
for  both  black  and  red  rubber  surfaces. 

Glycerine  was  the  basis  of  a  well-known  deodorizing  com- 
position for  India-rubber,  the  other  ingredients  being  of  an  alka- 
line nature.  A  bath  of  Glycerine  has  also  been  used  for  experi- 
mental work  in  vulcanizing  India-rubber,  and  also  for  rubber 
stamp  making.  In  this  kind  of  work,  the  mold  and  its  contents 
are  immersed  in  the  Glycerine  so  that  the  liquid  just  covers  the 
top  of  the  mold;  heat  is  then  applied  to  the  Glycerine,  and  the 
mold  in  turn  becomes  hot  and  the  rubber  vulcanizes.  It  is  also 
used  to  a  certain  extent  in  good  grades  of  white  rubber,  as  it  gives 
a  softened  effect  to  the  compound.  Glycerine,  in  connection  with 
glue,  gelatine,  molasses,  and  tannin,  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
puncture  fluids  for  tires.  It  is  also  used  in  clothing  compounds, 


GLYCERINE— LANOLINE.  173 

and  in  cellulose  products  like  pegamoid.  Used  in  rubber,  a  little 
of  it  increases  the  resiliency  of  the  product.  Another  use  for 
Glycerine  is  to  prevent  fabrics  from  mildewing.  The  fabric  is 
coated  with  it  before  being  frictioned. 

JAPAN  WAX. — A  white  or  pale  yellow  vegetable  fat,  with  a 
specific  gravity  of  0.97  to  0.98.  It  is  used  in  wax  matches, 
candles,  and  for  adulterating  beeswax.  A  special  use  for  it,  that 
has  arisen  within  the  last  few  years,  is  in  the  manufacture  of  cra- 
venette  cloths. 

LALLEMANTIA  OIL  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the  Lalle- 
mantia  iberica,  a  plant  cultivated  in  Russia.  This  is  one  of  the 
best  drying  oils,  being  said  to  surpass  even  linseed  oil,  but  its 
chief  use  is  for  illuminating  purposes.  In  Europe  it  is  said  to 
have  been  used  instead  of  linseed  oil  in  rubber  substitutes. 

LANICHOL. — A  product  of  lanoline  (which  see),  made  from 
the  oil  of  sheep's  wool.  It  combines  with  Gutta-percha  and  India- 
rubber  in  any  proportion  to  a  perfectly  homogeneous  mass.  This 
grease  does  not  oxidize  and  is  wholly  antiseptic.  It  has  no  smell, 
and  is  impervious  to  the  action  of  alkalies  or  to  dilute  sulphuric 
acid.  It  is  said  that,  used  in  connection  with  Gutta-percha,  the 
melting  point  is  considerably  raised,  while  it  does  not  diminish 
the  insulating  property.  An  insulating  compound  given  is  50 
parts  by  weight  of  Gutta-percha,  30  parts  of  India-rubber,  20 
parts  Lanichol.  The  inventor  claims  that  it  renders  Gutta-percha 
less  liable  to  oxidation,  improves  its  elasticity  and  tenacity,  and 
diminishes  its  liability  to  become  sticky.  Patented  in  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  by  Robert  Hutchinson. 

LANOLINE  is  also  known  as  wool  grease,  recovered  grease, 
and  brown  grease.  It  is  the  natural  grease  found  in  sheep's  wool 
and  recovered  from  it  while  the  raw  wool  is  being  prepared  for 
spinning.  A  similar  grease,  made  from  scoured  woven  goods,  is 
known  as  Yorkshire  grease.  It  is  a  thick  yellow  or  brown  offen- 
sive smelling  greasy  paste.  Commercial  Lanoline  is  lighter  color- 
ed and  consists  of  about  80  per  cent,  of  pure  wool  fat  and  20  per 
cent,  of  water.  It  possesses  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  property 
of  taking  up  water  without  losing  its  vaseline-like  consistency. 
Is  largely  used  in  ointments. 

Lanoline,  mixed  with  India-rubber,  works  up  into  an  exceed- 


174  OILS   IN   RUBBER    COMPOUNDS. 

ingly  sticky  mass,  and  is  used  as  a  medicinal  plaster.  It  is  said 
that,  while  it  possesses  the  adhesive  properties  of  the  regular 
plaster,  Lanoline  takes  up  the  medicament,  and  while  very  sticky 
can  be  readily  removed  from  the  skin.  It  is  used  for  the  purpose 
of  softening  India-rubber,  and  was  advised  for  use  in  tires,  as  it 
was  said  to  soften  the  compound,  and  to  keep  the  tire  from  decay, 
and  from  consequent  surface  cracking.  It  was  also  said  to  be 
used  in  boot  and  shoe  work. 

LARD  OIL  is  prepared  by  the  cold  pressing  of  lard,  which,  of 
course,  is  the  fat  of  the  hog.  It  is  a  colorless,  limpid  liquid,  al- 
though poorer  grades  are  brown.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.915.  It 
is  frequently  adulterated  with  rape  oil  and  cottonseed  oil.  Lard 
Oil,  mixed  with  powdered  pumice  stone  into  a  thick  paste,  is  used 
for  polishing  hard  rubber. 

LINSEED  OIL  is  pressed  from  the  seeds  of  the  flax  plant 
(Linuni  usitatissitnwm),  grown  chiefly  in  India  and  Russia.  The 
trade  recognizes  two  qualities  of  Russian  seed — yielding  the 
Black  sea  Linseed  Oil,  and  the  Baltic  Linseed  Oil — while  that 
coming  from  India  is  known  as  East  India  oil.  Of  these,  the 
Baltic  is  the  best,  and  the  East  Indian  the  poorest  in  quality.  The 
two  lower  grades  are  not  up  in  quality  for  the  reason  that  the 
Black  sea  seed  contains  a  certain  amount  of  hemp-seed,  while  that 
from  India  is  usually  mixed  with  rape,  cameline,  and  mustard 
seeds.  The  oil  which  is  expressed  from  these  seeds  is  of  a  golden 
yellow  color,  with  a  peculiar  taste  and  odor.  Linseed  Oil  becomes 
easily  rancid  in  the  open  air,  but  when  spread  in  thin  films  dries 
into  an  insoluble  substance  which  has  been  called  linoxyn.  Lin- 
seed Oil  is  adulterated  sometimes  by  fish  or  mineral  oils,  and  by 
resin  oils.  Old  tanked  Linseed  Oil  is  used  in  the  preparation  of 
what  is  known  as  boiled  oil ;  that  is,  it  is  heated  in  a  high  tempera- 
ture that  it  may  more  rapidly  dry  when  used  in  varnish.  This 
drying  process  is  hastened  by  the  addition  of  manganese  dioxide, 
litharge,  etc.  Boiled  Linseed  Oil  is  much  darker  than  raw  oil, 
having  a  brown  red  shade.  It  is  also  much  more  viscous  and  has 
a  higher  specific  gravity.  Boiled  oil  is  adulterated  in  the  same 
manner  as  is  raw  Linseed  Oil,  the  adulterants  being  resin  oils, 
resin,  and  mineral  oils. 

In  rubber  compounding  Linseed  Oil  is  very  often  used.     A 


LINSEED   OIL—NEATSFOOT  OIL.  175 

very  simple  formula  for  waterproofing  canvas  is  India-rubber, 
litharge,  sulphur,  and  Linseed  Oil.  It  is  also  used  in  rubber  var- 
nishes, to  a  certain  extent  in  molded  goods,  and  quite  largely  in 
hard  rubber  compounding.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  rub- 
ber substitutes,  and  is  well  known  as  it  is  the  basis  of  a  great 
many  of  the  vulcanized  oil  substitutes.  Linseed  Oil  that  is  in- 
tended for  mixing  in  linoleum  is  exposed  to  the  air  until  it  is 
thoroughly  oxygenated.  In  this  state  it  is  insoluble  in  alcohol, 
chloroform,  ether,  and  ordinary  solvents. 

LITHOGRAPHIC  VARNISH. — This  is  obtained  by  boiling  lin- 
seed oil  at  a  temperature  higher  than  that  at  which  boiled  oil  is 
prepared,  nor  are  dryers  added  during  the  boiling.  It  is  a  per- 
pectly  clear,  transparent  substance,  the  best  quality  being  nearly 
as  light  as  raw  linseed  oil.  There  are  two  ordinary  grades  of 
Lithographic  Varnish.  One  is  known  as  "burnt  oil,"  which  is  ob- 
tained by  bringing  raw  linseed  oil  up  to  its  flash  point,  and  allow- 
ing it  to  burn  until  the  required  thickness  is  reached,  it  being  con- 
stantly stirred  meanwhile.  "Oxygenated  oil"  is  a  linseed  oil  var- 
nish made  by  treating  the  oil  with  oxygen  in  jacketed  kettles, 
heated  by  steam.  The  product  is  as  light  colored  as  raw  linseed 
oil,  but  heavier.  It  is  also  more  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  and 
has  marked  drying  powers. 

MIRBANE  OIL. — See  Nitrobenzene. 

MANGANATED  LINSEED  OIL  is  used  in  certain  rubber  com- 
pounds where  more  of  a  drying  effect  is  needed  than  is  found  in 
the  raw  linseed  oil.  It  is  linseed  oil  that  has  been  boiled  with 
peroxide  of  manganese  to  increase  its  drying  qualities.  (See 
Boiled  Oil.) 

MUSTARD  OIL. — Black  Mustard  Oil  is  obtained  from  the 
seeds  of  the  Sinapsis  nigra.  It  possesses  a  mild  taste,  is  of  a 
brownish  yellow  color,  and  in  its  chemical  composition  closely  re- 
sembles rapeseed  oil.  It  is  a  by-product  and  is  largely  used  in  soap 
making.  White  Mustard  Oil  is  made  from  the  seeds  of  the  Sina- 
pis  alba.  It  is  of  a  yellow  color,  and  is  almost  identical  with  black 
Mustard  Oil.  Both  of  these  oils  have  been  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  rubber  substitutes. 

NEATSFOOT  OIL. — A  pale,  yellow,  colorless  oil,  obtained  from 
the  feet  of  oxen  by  boiling  in  water.  It  has  a  smooth  pleasant 


176  OILS   IN   RUBBER    COMPOUNDS. 

taste.  On  standing  it  deposits  stearine.  It  is  largely  adulterated 
with  cheaper  animal  or  vegetable  and  even  mineral  oils.  Neats- 
foot  Oil,  mixed  with  Gutta-percha,  tallow,  sweet  oil,  and  oil  of 
thyme,  is  used  as  a  rust  preventative.  It  is  used  in  connection 
with  beeswax,  India-rubber,  and  Burgundy  pitch  in  a  composi- 
tion for  dressing  leathers  or  hides. 

NITROBENZENE  (also  called  "oil  of  mirbane"  and  "imitation 
oil  of  bitter  almonds")  is  a  yellow  aromatic  liquid  produced  by 
the  action  of  nitric  acid  on  benzene.  It  is  used  in  perfumery  and 
turned  out  in  great  quantities  during  the  manufacture  of  anilines. 
It  is  used  also  in  certain  insulating  compounds  in  connection  with 
asbestos,  powdered  glass,  vulcanized  rubber,  castor  oil,  resin  oil, 
and  celluloid  in  solution. 

OIL  OF  LAVENDER  has  no  perfume  when  new,  but  develops 
it  on  being  exposed  to  the  air.  It  is  distilled  from  the  flowers  of 
the  Lavandula  vera,  and  is  used  sometimes  to  deodorize  rubber 
goods. 

OIL  OF  LEMON  is  obtained  from  fresh  lemon  peel.  A  very 
volatile  yellow  or  colorless  oil;  specific  gravity  0.858;  soluble  in 
bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  absolute  alcohol ;  often  adulterated  with 
fixed  oils  and  alcohol;  dissolves  sulphur,  phosphorus,  resin,  and 
fats;  used  to  deodorize  certain  proofing  compounds,  cologne 
sometimes  taking  its  place. 

OIL  OF  ORRIS,  or  ORRIS  OIL,  is  found  commercially  and  is 
prepared  from  the  root.  It  is  lighter  than  water,  and  of  the  con- 
sistency of  butter.  Melts  at  100°  F.,  and  is  miscible  with  alcohol. 
Its  odor  is  like  that  of  violets.  Is  used  in  rubber  as  a  deodorizer. 

OIL  OF  PEPPERMINT. — A  greenish  yellow  colorless  oil,  be- 
coming reddish  with  age;  of  a  strong  and  aromatic  odor;  and 
warm,  camphor  like,  very  pungent  taste;  specific  gravity  from 
0.902  to  0.920 ;  used  in  fine  goods  for  its  odor. 

OIL  OF  ROSEMARY. — An  essential  oil  of  the  specific  gravity 
0.896.  Colorless  and  having  the  odor  of  rosemary.  Used  with 
India-rubber,  paraifine,  and  spermaceti  in  waterproofing  com- 
pounds, and,  where  rubber  is  present,  to  neutralize  its  odor. 

OIL  OF  TAR. — An  oil  distilled  from  tar.  It  is  a  mixture  of 
several  lighter  oils,  and  is  made  up  of  liquid  hydrocarbons  which 
hold  in  solution  small  quantities  of  anthracine,  naphthaline,  and 


OIL    OF    TAR— PALM    OIL.  177 

paraffine.  It  is  sometimes  used  for  mixing  with  lubricating  oils, 
and  for  coating  bags  that  are  to  hold  alkaline  earths,  the  interior 
of  the  bag  being  washed  with  chloride  of  lime.  The  Earl  of  Dun- 
donald  recommended  Oil  of  Tar  as  a  coating  for  rubber,  claiming 
that  it  had  a  preservative  effect.  It  is  also  used  in  compounds 
for  surface  clothing. 

OIL  OF  THYME  (also  called  Origanum  Oil)  is  extracted  from 
the  flowers  and  leaves  of  the  Thymus  vulgaris.  It  is  yellowish  red 
in  color;  its  specific  gravity  is  0.92;  and  it  has  a  pungent  taste; 
it  is  used  to  disguise  the  odor  of  ale  cements. 

OIL  OF  WORMWOOD. — A  pungent  essential  oil  distilled  from 
the  Artemisia  absinthium;  employed  at  an  early  day  to  deodorize 
spirits  of  turpentine  when  used  in  rubber. 

OLEARGUM. — A  black  viscid  liquid  of  an  oily  nature  used  as 
a  dull  finish  wash  for  rubber  boots.  Its  composition  is  a  trade 
secret. 

OLEUM  SUCCINI. — The  same  as  Oil  of  Amber  (which  see) ; 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap  substitutes. 

OLIVE  OIL  is  expressed  from  the  fruit  of  the  olive  tree,  prin- 
cipally in  the  countries  of  Europe  bordering  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean. Its  specific  gravity  is  0.916.  It  is  adulterated  frequently 
with  cottonseed  oil.  Olive  Oil  is  used  in  taking  impressions  from 
type-faces  in  the  matrix  in  which  rubber  type  is  cured.  Mayall 
suggested  the  mixing  of  Olive  Oil  with  clay  until  it  formed  a 
soft  putty,  and  then  incorporating  it  with  the  India-rubber,  the 
proportion  being  J  pound  of  oil  to  30  pounds  of  gum.  The  use  of 
the  oil  enabled  the  goods  to  be  more  largely  adulterated ;  he  also 
used  Olive  Oil  in  connection  with  devulcanized  rubber,  not  as  a 
solvent,  but  because  he  claimed  that  it  combined  with  the  gum 
and  improved  its  quality.  Olive  Oil  is  also  used  in  hard  rubber 
compounding.  Rubber  is  sometimes  heated  up  in  Olive  Oil  mixed 
with  zinc,  soap,  and  borax  for  a  proofing  solution.  It  is  also  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  pegamoid. 

PALM  OIL  is  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  various  species  of 
palm,  principally  from  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  and  is  known  in 
commerce  under  as  many  names  as  there  are  ports  of  shipment. 
It  is  expressed  in  a  very  rough  fashion  by  the  natives,  who  stir 
the  palm  kernels  in  holes  in  the  ground  until  fermentation  sets  in 


i;8  OILS   IN   RUBBER    COMPOUNDS. 

and  the  oil  rises  to  the  surface.  They  also  sometimes  press  the 
oil  from  the  fresh  fruits.  The  harder  grades  of  Palm  Oil  are 
yielded  by  the  former  procees,  the  latter  giving  the  finer  oils. 
Palm  Oil  varies  in  consistency.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.945;  its 
color  yellow  to  reddish ;  its  odor  that  of  violets.  It  yields  a  soap 
readily  with  alkalies  and  dissolves  in  ether  and  in  alcohol  of  0.848 
specific  gravity.  Palm  Oil  is  very  rarely  adulterated,  unless  it  is 
done  by  the  native  gatherers,  who  sometimes  add  sand  as  a  make- 
weight. Commercially,  where  sand  and  water  together  exceed  2 
per  cent.,  an  allowance  is  claimed  from  the  seller. 

White  Palm  Oil  is  that  which  has  been  bleached  by  heated 
chemicals  or  exposure  to  the  air.  "Lagos  oil"  has  about  the  same 
consistency  as  butter,  while  "Congo  oil"  is  as  thick  as  tallow. 
Palm  Oil  is  used  largely  in  the  manufacture  of  mechanical  and 
dry-heat  goods,  chiefly  to  enable  dry  ingredients  to  mix  more 
easily  with  India-rubber.  It  has  also  been  used  in  the  recovery 
of  waste  rubber  by  the  mixing  of  the  finely  ground  rubber  with 
it  and  exposing  the  mass  to  a  heat  of  572°  F.  Palm  Oil  residuum 
is  used  in  connection  with  resin  oil  as  an  insulator.  Palm  Oil  is 
also  used  in  the  production  of  artificial  elaterite. 

PARAFFINE  OIL  is  a  petroleum  product;  it  is  also  prepared 
from  coal  tar  and  wood  tar.  It  is  a  waxy  substance  of  a  white 
color,  much  resembling  spermaceti.  It  is  used  chiefly  as  a  lubri- 
cant, and  is  not  acted  upon  by  most  of  the  chemical  reagents. 
Paraffine  Oil  mixed  with  cottonseed  oil  is  used  in  certain  canvas 
proofings. 

PETROLEUM  OIL  (also  known  as  Rock  Oil)  is  a  dark,  ill 
smelling  liquid,  obtained  from  wells  sunk  in  oil-bearing  sands. 
Some  Russian  oils,  however,  are  colorless.  White  Rangoon  oil 
contains  so  much  paraffine  as  to  have  the  consistency  of  butter. 
The  specific  gravity  of  American  petroleum  varies  from  0.8  to 
0.85  or  0.9. 

PETROLEUM  PARAFFINE. — See  Vaseline. 

PETROLEUM  JELLY. — See  Vaseline. 

PETROLATUM. — See  Vaseline. 

POPPYSEED  OIL  is  obtained  by  pressing  the  seeds  of  the  com- 
mon poppy  (Pap aver  so mniferum) .  Commercially  there  are  two 
grades:  (i)  white  Poppyseed  Oil  and  (2)  red  Poppyseed  Oil. 


POPPYSEED    OIL—STEARINE.  179 

This  oil  has  a  pleasant  taste  and  no  odor;  it  is  rarely  adulterated 
with  other  oils,  although  occasionally  sesame  oil  is  found  in  il; 
it  is  an  excellent  drying  oil,  and  its  lower  grades  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  soaps;  its  use  in  the  rubber  industry  is  chiefly 
in  the  manufacture  of  substitutes. 

RAPESEED  OIL  (also  know  as  Colza  Oil)  is  a  pale  yellow  in 
color,  with  an  unpleasant  harsh  taste.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about 
').9i6.  It  is  largely  adulterated  with  both  vegetable,  mineral,  and 
fish  oils.  It  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the  Brassica  campestris, 
and  of  several  varieties  of  this  genus  which  are  cultivated.  Ame- 
rican oils  from  all  of  these  are  termed  colza  oil,  or  rape  oil  indis- 
criminately. In  Europe,  however,  rape  is  one  kind  of  oil  and  colza 
is  another.  There  is  also  what  is  called  the  summer  oil  and  the 
winter  oil,  a  distinction  which  is  of  no  interest  to  rubber  manu- 
facturers. Rape  oil  is  hardly  a  semi-drying  oil,  nor  is  it  yet  a  non- 
drying  oil,  but  about  half  way  between  the  two.  It  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  certain  rubber  substitutes.  Mixed  with  India- 
rubber  it  has  been  used  as  a  somewhat  costly  mixture  for  lubricat- 
ing machinery. 

ROSIN  OIL. — Made  by  subjecting  resin  to  destructive  distil- 
lation. The  resultant  oil  is  heavier  than  mineral  oils,  and  its 
chemical  composition  is  quite  involved.  It  is  largely  made  up, 
however,  of  hydrocarbons,  with  a  certain  amount  of  resin  acids. 
Used  in  making  a  waterproof  solution,  by  the  addition  of  Japan 
wax  and  gum  thus,  in  the  manufacture  of  a  solution  for  treating 
hides  and  leather.  Used  also  in  compounds  for  calking  ships  in 
which  India-rubber  has  a  part,  and  is  an  important  ingredient  in 
the  manufacture  of  guttaline. 

RUSSIAN  MINERAL  OIL. — Petroleum  from  the  Baku  oil  wells 
in  Russia. 

SHALE  OIL. — Chiefly  produced  in  Scotland  from  a  dark,  coal- 
like  looking  material  called  shale.  It  is  similar  in  nearly  all  re- 
spects to  petroleum  oil.  Used  with  asphaltum  in  certain  insulat- 
ing compounds. 

SLUDGE. — The  brown  or  black  residue  obtained  in  the  refin- 
ing of  petroleum  after  all  the  lighter  oils  have  been  distilled  off. 
Known  also  as  Petroleum  Residuum.  (See  Sludge-oil  Resin.) 

STEARINE. — An  important  ingredient  in  animal  and  vegeta- 


180  OILS   IN    RUBBER    COMPOUNDS. 

ble  fats.  It  is  quite  solid,  and  increases  the  hardness,  and  raises 
the  melting  point  of  fat.  Commercially,  Stearine  is  also  known  as 
stearic  acid.  It  is  an  important  element  in  the  manufacture  of 
cravenettes,  where  it  is  used  with  ozocerite,  beeswax,  paraffine, 
and  Japan  wax. 

TALLOW. — Beef  tallow,  when  fresh,  is  almost  white,  free 
from  disagreeable  odor,  and  almost  tasteless.  On  the  other  hand, 
foreign  tallow  runs  from  white  to  yellow  and  is  often  quite  ran- 
cid. Tallow  is  often  adulterated  with  resin  oil,  cocoanut  oil,  cot- 
tonseed oil,  and  paraffine  wax.  It  is  used  in  non-drying  cements 
in  connection  with  slaked  lime  and  India-rubber.  In  connection 
with  India-rubber  it  is  also  used  in  the  production  of  what  was 
known  as  Berry's  waterproof  harness  oil,  which  was  made  of 
India-rubber,  Tallow,  seal  oil,  and  ivory  black.  An  etching  var- 
nish is  made  of  Gutta-percha,  turpentine,  beeswax,  and  Tallow. 
A  small  amount  of  this  was  used  by  Hancock  in  compounding 
for  softening  Gutta-percha.  It  is  used  with  Gutta-percha  in  shoe- 
makers' wax,  and  also  in  certain  proofing  compounds  with  India- 
rubber,  pitch,  and  linseed  oil.  Mixed  with  India-rubber,  beeswax, 
and  linseed  oil,  Tallow  makes  an  excellent  dressing  for  leather. 

TURPENTINE  was  used  in  one  of  the  earliest  formulas  in  the 
manufacture  of  devulcanized  rubber.  (See  Spirits  of  Turpentine.) 

VASELINE  is  the  purified  residue  from  the  distillation  of  pe- 
troleum. Its  specific  gravity  is  .875  to  .945.  It  is  insoluble  in 
water,  barely  soluble  in  cold,  but  soluble  in  boiling  absolute  alco- 
hol, and  in  ether,  bisulphide  of  carbon,  oil  of  turpentine,  benzine, 
and  benzol.  It  is  the  basis  of  a  cheap  waterproofing  process,  the 
other  ingredients  being  silicate  of  soda,  alum,  and  hot  water. 
Vaseline  is  used  quite  often  in  general  compounding  for  its  soft- 
ening effects.  It  is  also  combined  with  menthol  and  gum  alibanum 
in  the  manufacture  of  porous  plasters.  Vaseline  has  been  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  substitutes  similar  to  ruberite. 

VULCANIZED  OIL. — See  Rubber  Substitutes. 

WALNUT  OIL. — Cold  drawn  oil  is  very  fluid,  almost  colorless, 
and  of  an  agreeable  nutty  flavor.  Hot  pressed  oil  has  a  greenish 
tint  and  an  acrid  taste  and  smell.  Is  used  in  rubber  substitutes, 
particularly  in  those  in  which  peroxide  of  lead  appears  as  a  dryer. 

WHITE  DRYING  OIL. — Bleached  linseed  oil. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

SOLVENTS  USED  IN  INDIA-RUBBER  PROOFING  AND  CEMENTING  AND 

IN  COMMERCIAL  CEMENTS. 

THE  beginnings  of  the  manufacture  of  India-rubber  consist- 
ed in  putting  the  gum  in  solution  ;  and  it  was  a  considerable 
time  before  the  discovery  of  the  present  processes  of  dry  mixing, 
which  are  employed  in  the  production  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
rubber  goods  now  made.  There  are  certain  lines,  however,  where 
the  use  of  solvents  is  still  both  necessary  and  economical.  In  the 
mackintosh  manufacture,  for  instance,  the  rubber  is  in  almost 
every  instance  spread  in  the  form  of  solution,  as  a  thinner  coat 
can  be  spread  in  this  way,  offsetting  the  cost  of  the  solvent.  Many 
sheetings  in  various  colors  that,  only  a  few  years  ago,  were  calen- 
dered, are  now  coated  by  the  means  of  solution.  In  the  making 
up  of  almost  all  lines  of  rubber  goods,  certain  cements  are  neces- 
sary, and  these  are  ordinarily  made  in  the  factory  that  produces 
the  goods.  The  cements  that  are  sold  in  bulk,  such  as  channeling 
cements,  for  leather  shoe  manufacturing,  as  well  as  cements  that 
are  sold  in  smaller  packages  to  repair  men  in  the  cycle  industry, 
all  consist  of  rubber  and  analogous  gums  treated  with  some  suit- 
able solvent.  Before  discussing  the  ordinary  and  the  extraor- 
dinary solvents  that  interest  the  rubber  manufacturer,  it  may  be 
well  to  consider  what  the  various  solvents  can  do. 

The  following  tables  showing  the  solubility  of  India-rubber 
are  of  exceeding  interest,  therefore.  The  first,  which  is  taken 
from  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry,  is  a  table 
of  the  solubility  of  masticated  caoutchouc  in  solvents  : 

Ceara  Para         Sierra  Leone 

ioo  parts  of  :  Rubber.        Negroheads.      Rubber. 

Ethyl  ether  .....................         2.6  3.6  4.6 

Turpentine  ....................         4.5  5.0  4.6 

Chloroform  ....................         3.0  3.7  3.0 


Petroleum  benzene..  ............        4.4  5.0 

Carbon  bisulphide  ..............        0.4  None.          None. 

Hoffer  gives,  as  a  result  of  his  individual  experiments,  the 

following  table  of  solutions,  the  samples  in  each  case  being  ioo 

parts  of  well-dried  India-rubber: 

181 


182  SOLVENTS   FOR    RUBBER. 

In  bisulphide  of  carbon  .........................  65  to  70 

In  benzol  ..................................    ----  48  to  52 

In  oil  of  turpentine  .............................  50  to  52 

In  caoutchine  ...................................  53  to  55 

In  ether  ........................................  60  to  68 

In  camphene  ....................................  53  to  58 

The  great  differences  between  various  grades  of  rubber  have 
been  found  to  be  due,  as  much  as  anything,  to  the  amounts  of 
resins  that  are  to  be  found  in  them.  As  these  resins  are  soluble, 
and  in  some  cases  can  be  removed,  it  is  important  that  rubber 
manufacturers  not  only  appreciate  their  presence,  but,  where  it  is 
practicable,  dissolve  them  out.  These  resins,  according  to  Las- 
selles-  Scott,  who  furnishes  the  following  valuable  table,  consist 
of  abietic  acid  or  some  other  similar  body  : 

Normal  Resin  Normal  Resin 

Description  of  (soluble  in  Description  of  (soluble  in 

Rubber.  85  p.  c.  Alcohol).  Rubber.  85  p.  c.  Alcohol) 

Para  .....................  91  Ceara  ...................   1.16 

Para  .....................  60  Assam  ..................  6.45 

Para  ....................   1.62  Assam  ..................  4.88 

Para  ....................   1.14  Burma     ................   5.20 

Para  .....................  85  Rio  .....................  3.37 

Madagascar  ............  4.06  Africa  (various)  .........  8.23 

Madagascar  .............  5.22  Africa  (various)  .........  10.60 

Madagascar  .............  2.84  Africa  (various)  .........  6.71 

Colombia  ...............  3.40  Mangabeira  ............   8.43 

Colombia  ...............  2.11  Origin  unknown  ........  11.14 

Ceara  ...................   2.33  Origin  unknown  ........   7.27 

Ceara  ...................   1.80  Origin  unknown  ........  16.56 

In  some  of  them  oxygen  is  a  component  part,  and  they  are 
all  soluble  in  alcohol  of  85  per  cent,  strength  and  upwards.  It 
will  be  noticed  from  this  table  that  Para  rubber  has  the  least  per- 
centage of  resin,  and,  of  course,  is  the  most  valuable.  The  sam- 
ples containing  the  largest  proportions  of  resin  were  unmistaka- 
bly adulterated  with  other  gums  during  collection. 

C.  O.  Weber  gives  the  percentages  of  resin  in  a  number 
of  samples  of  rubber  as  follows: 

Grade  of  Rubber,  **'  Grade  of  Rubber. 


Para  (fine)  ...................   1.3  Sierra  Leone  ................  9.7 

Ceara  ........................   2.1  Assam  .......................  11.3 

Colombian  ...................  3.8  Mangabeira  ..................  13.1 

Mozambique  .................  3.2  African  ball  No.  i  ...........  22.8 

Rio  Janeiro  ..................   5.2  African  ball  No.  2  ...........  26.1 

Madagascar  ..................  8.2  African   flake  ................  63.9 

ACETONE  is  a  colorless  mobile  liquid,  with  a  very  unpleasant 


ALCOHOL.  183 

taste  and  peculiar  odor,  and  outwardly  resembling  alcohol.  It  is 
a  good  solvent  for  organic  substances,  and  for  many  gums  and 
resins.  When  recovered  from  wood  spirit,  it  is  distilled  from 
the  calcium  chloride  compound,  generally  with  methyl  alcohol. 
It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.802.  Acetone  is  the  solvent  used  in 
the  preparation  of  linoxin. 

ALCOHOL,  when  pure,  is  a  colorless,  thin,  mobile  liquid,  of  a 
somewhat  disagreeable  smell,  burning  taste,  and  specific  gravity 
0.792.  What  is  known  as  absolute  alcohol  is  that  which  has  been 
deprived  of  all  water.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.795.  It  eagerly 
absorbs  water,  and,  as  it  becomes  more  dilute,  its  specific  gravity 
rises ;  alcohol  of  60  per  cent,  has  a  specific  gravity  of  .883.  There 
are  a  number  of  forms  of  alcohol  used  in  the  arts.  Methylated 
spirit  is  a  form  having  the  lowest  boiling  point  of  the  group  of 
alcohols ;  rectified  spirit  is  a  term  for  alcohol  of  95  per  cent,  and 
specific  gravity  .806 ;  fusel  oil  is  a  complex  mixture  of  alcohol  and 
various  ethers,  being  a  colorless  liquid  of  burning  acrid  taste  and 
odor  very  irritating  to  the  lungs,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  0.8 1 8. 
The  last  is  made  usually  from  potatoes.  None  of  these  really  are 
solvents  of  rubber,  but  are  frequently  and  largely  used  in  var- 
nishes. India-rubber,  when  treated  with  large  quantities  of  al- 
cohol, is  deposited  in  a  spongy  form,  the  foreign  ingredients  in 
the  gum  going  into  solution.  Treated  in  this  way  it  can  be  made 
an  exceedingly  white  mass.  It  is  also  used  in  treating  many  of 
the  pseudo  guttas  to  dissolve  out  the  brittle  resinous  matters.  It 
has  also  been  claimed  that  the  washing  of  raw  rubber  with  alcohol 
dissolves  resinous  ingredients  which  are  better  absent,  and  that 
the  rubber  as  a  result  lasts  longer.  Rectified  spirit  is  what  is 
generally  known,  or  rather,  used,  in  connection  with  India-rub- 
ber. It  is  used  by  the  gatherers  to  coagulate  the  sap  of  the  Ba- 
lata,  and  is  used  also  in  the  production  of  resinolines  (which 
see).  One  of  the  early  uses  was  to  mix  with  it  various  solvents — 
for  instance,  with  spirits  of  turpentine,  coal  oil,  bisulphide  of  car- 
bon, ether,  chloroform,  etc.  When  ill-smelling  solvents  were  used, 
it  was  also  often  incorporated  to  neutralize  the  odor.  In  the  Azo 
process  for  reclaiming  rubber,  20  parts  of  alcohol  to  I  part  of 
bisulphide  of  carbon  are  used  for  softening  and  reclaiming  rub- 
ber. Dental  and  other  gums  are  exposed  to  the  sunlight  in  Alco- 


184  SOLVENTS   FOR    RUBBER. 

hoi  to  increase  the  brilliancy  of  the  colors  and  to  make  the  shades 
lighter.  Alcohol  is  also  used  to  soften  vulcanized  rubber  when 
a  surface  color  is  to  be  added.  Alcohol,  in  connection  with  nitric 
acid,  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  aniline,  was  used  by  Kelly  for  sur- 
face work  on  India-rubber. 

ANTHRACINE. — A  trade  name  for  napthaline  (which  see.) 
BENZOL  or  BENZOLE  is  a  volatile  oil  obtained  in  the  distilla- 
tion of  coal  tar,  which  must  not  be  confused  with  coal  tar  naph- 
tha. Its  specific  gravity  is  0.899  at  32°  F.,  and  0.878  at  68°  F. 
It  is  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and  freely  soluble  in  alcohol  and 
ether,  and  in  bisulphide  of  carbon.  It  is  sold  according  to  its  per- 
centage of  pure  benzol.  It  has  great  solvent  properties.  Benzol 
is  used  largely  as  a  solvent  for  rubber  in  manufacturing  bicycle 
cements,  and  also  for  dissolving  rubber,  and  for  the  cold  vulcani- 
zation of  thin  rubber  fabrics  containing  chloride  of  sulphur,  in 
which  Benzol  is  much  superior  to  carbon  bisulphide;  and  at  pre- 
sent it  is  much  cheaper,  both  on  account  of  less  loss  in  handling, 
and  also,  of  its  much  lower  price  per  gallon.  This  refers  more 
particularly  to  the  high  grades  of  Benzol,  like  100  per  cent,  or 
C.  P. ;  the  160°  Benzol  is  mostly  used  where  a  solvent  is  required 
that  must  not  evaporate  too  rapidly.  It  is  said  that  if  Gutta-per- 
cha is  put  in  20  times  its  weight  of  boiling  Benzol,  to  which  i-ioth 
of  plaster  is  added,  and  the  mixture  agitated  from  time  to  time, 
a  perfectly  clear  solution  is  decanted.  This  is  then  mixed  with 
twice  its  volume  of  90  per  cent,  alcohol  and  the  Gutta-percha  pre- 
cipitated a  pure  white.  (See  Naphtha.) 

BISULPHIDE  OF  CARBON  is  a  transparent  liquid,  the  specific 
gravity  of  which  is  1.27.  It  is  exceedingly  volatile,  evaporating  at 
ordinary  temperature.  When  properly  made  its  smell  is  some- 
what similar  to  chloroform.  The  bad  smell  found  in  some  is  due 
to  sulphureted  hydrogen,  and  the  presence  of  foreign  matters 
from  which  it  can  be  thoroughly  freed  by  purification.  It  is  high- 
ly inflammable,  though  not  explosive,  and  has  great  affinity  for 
sulphur,  loo  parts  dissolving  37  parts  of  sulphur,  cold ;  and  at  100° 
F.  the  same  quantity  will  dissolve  94.5  parts.  Bisulphide  of  Car- 
bon mixes  with  every  known  substance  capable  of  vulcanizing 
rubber.  It  also  assimilates  rapidly  with  all  fatty  oils,  and  dis- 
solves all  the  resins,  with  the  exception  of  shellac.  It  does  not 


BISULPHIDE  OF  CARBON— CAMPHOR.          185 

dissolve  vulcanized  rubber,  however.  Where  it  is  used  in  rubber 
factories  care  is  taken,  as  a  rule,  to  remove  the  fumes,  as  they  are 
injurious  to  the  workmen.  Some  very  serious  cases  of  chronic 
poisoning  have  occurred  through  the  use  of  this  solvent,  the 
symptoms  being  numbness,  partial  paralysis,  and,  in  some  cases, 
temporary  insanity.  The  use  of  Bisulphide  of  Carbon  in  rubber 
factories  is  very  carefully  watched,  therefore,  by  the  authorities 
in  Europe,  proper  means  for  ventilation  and  carrying  off  the 
fumes  being  insisted  upon,  and  minors  being  excluded  from  rooms 
where  it  is  used.  It  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  common  solvents 
for  India-rubber,  very  largely  used  in  the  Parkes  cold  curing  and 
similar  processes,  and  in  cements. 

BISULPHIDE  OF  CARBON  SUBSTITUTE  is  a  liquid  produced  by 
Dr.  Carl  Otto  Weber,  which  is  said  to  be  a  perfect  substitute  for 
bisulphide  of  carbon.  It  had  these  advantages:  less  chloride  of 
sulphur  was  needed,  the  smell  of  the  vulcanized  product  was 
sweeter,  the  vulcanizing  solution  penetrated  deeper  into  the  rub- 
ber, the  risk  of  burning  the  rubber  and  the  uneven  vulcanization 
was  also  done  away  with.  It  is  also  said  that  this  substitute  is 
not  injurious  to  the  health.  It  is  manufactured  in  England. 

BORAX  is  sometimes  used  as  a  solvent  for  rubber.  (See 
Acids  and  Alkalies.) 

CAMPHINE  is  a  name  applied  to  one  of  the  varieties  of  spirits 
of  turpentine  which  was  once  largely  used  as  a  burning  fluid.  It 
is  very  volatile,  and  the  vapor  may  exist  in  the  air  in  explosive 
quantities.  Camphine  was  formerly  used  to  a  certain  extent  as  a 
solvent  for  India-rubber.  Under  Newton's  method  of  recovering 
rubber,  the  waste  was  placed  in  a  closed  vessel,  covered  with 
Camphine,  and  heated  to  158°  F.  or  fourteen  days.  The  solvent 
was  then  distilled  off,  and  the  tough  mass  remaining  was  capable 
of  utilization,  and  was  somewhat  similar  to  unvulcanized  rubber. 
It  was  also  used  in  the  boot  heel  cements  in  the  old-fashioned 
method  of  attaching  them  to  rubber  boots,  and  also  in  general 
shoe  cements.  Camphine  was  also  used  in  putting  vulcanized 
waste,  finely  powdered,  into  a  solution  in  connection  with  ether 
and  alcohol,  in  a  simple  but  somewhat  expensive  process  of  re- 
covery. 

CAMPHOR    has    been    used    as    a  solvent    for    utilizing   the 


i86  SOLVENTS   FOR    RUBBER. 

waste  of  vulcanized  rubber  and  of  hard  rubber,  the  waste  being 
first  treated  with  any  ordinary  solvent  and  then  placed  in  a  still 
with  a  certain  amount  of  camphor,  when  the  India-rubber  is  dis- 
solved and  the  solvent  passed  out  and  distilled  over  again.  Granu- 
lated Camphor,  over  which  had  been  passed  sulphurous  acid  gas 
until  it  was  reduced  to  a  liquid,  was  used  also  as  a  solvent  for 
India-rubber,  by  Alexander  Parkes.  (See  Gums,  etc.) 

CAOUTCHOUCINE,  also  spelled  Caoutchine,  is  a  crude  oil  of 
India-rubber,  made  by  its  dry  distillation,  and  smelling  much  like 
naphtha.  It  is  an  excellent  solvent  for  India-rubber,  but  of  course 
is  too  expensive  for  ordinary  use.  India-rubber  immersed  in  it 
swells  exceedingly,  and  a  considerable  quantity  of  it  is  dissolved 
during  the  boiling.  It  must  be  kept  in  hermetically  sealed  vessels, 
as  it  has  a  great  affinity  for  oxygen,  which  it  absorbs  energeti- 
cally. In  preparing  it,  the  India-rubber  is  treated  in  a  retort  at 
a  heat  exceeding  400°  F.  Caoutchoucine  dissolves  in  ether  or 
alcohol,  and,  absorbing  oxygen  freely,  forms  a  resinous  body  as 
a  result. 

CHLORIDE  OF  CARBON. — This  is  obtained  by  the  distilling 
of  bisulphide  of  carbon  into  a  vessel  containing  penta-chloride 
of  antimony,  the  product  being  rectified  by  distilling  with  lime. 
According  to  Simpson,  this  makes  a  good  solvent  for  India-rubber 
and  in  a  measure  vulcanizes  it.  Newton  also  used  a  chloride  of 
carbon  in  dissolving  both  India-rubber  and  Gutta-percha,  while 
Crump  used  tetra-chloride  of  carbon. 

CHLOROFORM  is  prepared  generally  by  distilling  together  a 
mixture  of  spirit — that  is,  wood  alcohol — with  bleaching  powder, 
slaked  lime,  and  water.  Its  density  is  from  1.496  to  1.498.  It 
is  one  of  the  best  rubber  solvents  known.  It  is  costly,  however, 
and  has  a  bad  effect  upon  workmen.  Lascelles- Scott  mentions 
what  he  calls  the  A.  C.  E.  mixture  which  is  composed  of  alcohol 
15  parts,  chloroform  38  parts,  and  ether  47  parts,  which  yields 
a  powerful  solvent  for  India-rubber  or  Gutta-percha.  Chloro- 
form dissolves  not  only  India-rubber,  but  fats,  resins,  sulphur, 
alkaloids,  and  many  other  organic  compounds.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  a  small  percentage  of  chloroform  in  the  air,  even 
as  little  as  5  per  cent.,  is  dangerous  to  the  workmen.  Chloroform 
is  used  as  the  solvent  for  India-rubber  which  is  treated  with  the 


CHLOROFORM— ETHER.  187 

ammoniac  gas  process  for  bleaching.  Is  also  used  alone,  -and  in 
connection  with  naphtha  for  rubber  cements,  which  are  intended 
to  adhere  to  glass.  In  the  bleaching  of  Gutta-percha,  it  is  also 
used  as  a  solvent.  One  of  the  first  uses  of  Chloroform  in  con- 
nection with  India-rubber  is  to  be  noted  under  a  patent  granted 
to  Charles  F.  Durant,  who  announced  the  discovery  of  a  solvent 
known  as  "perchloride  of  formyle,  otherwise  known  as  chloro- 
form." 

CREOSOTE  OILS,  in  connection  with  ordinary  solvents  for  In- 
dia-rubber, are  said  to  produce  a  cheap  and  effective  solvent. 
Indeed,  John  Bagnol,  manufacturer  for  Charles  Macintosh  &  Co., 
patented  their  use  as  applied  to  India-rubber.  (See  Creosote.) 

DIPPEI/S  OIL  (or  Bone  Naphtha). — A  thick,  viscid  oil  of 
brown  color  and  very  disagreeable  odor,  which  on  distillation 
may  be  obtained  limpid  and  colorless.  It  is  prepared  by  the  de- 
structive distillation  of  bones,  leaving  boneblack  as  a  residuum. 
It  was  one  of  the  early  solvents  used  for  India-rubber. 

ETHER. — This  was  one  of  the  early  solvents  used  in  connec- 
tion with  India-rubber.  It  is  sometimes  called  sulphuric  ether, 
but  erroneously.  It  is  prepared  usually  by  distilling  a  mixture  of 
alcohol  and  sulphuric  acid,  washing  the  distillate,  and  rectifying 
the  product  with  quick  lime  or  something  of  that  kind.  It  is  a 
colorless,  very  mobile  liquid,  with  a  not  unpleasant  smell,  burn- 
ing taste,  and  very  volatile.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.736.  It  is 
soluble  in  water  i  to  12.  Commercial  Ether  boils  at  96°  F.,  and 
yields  a  dense  vapor..  It  is  very  inflammable,  and,  when  mixed 
with  air  or  oxygen,  gives  rise  to  a  dangerous  explosive  mixture. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  solvents  known  for  oils  and  fats,  and  is  also 
an  excellent  solvent  for  sulphur.  For  use  in  rubber  work  Ether 
should  be  free  from  water,  but  not  absolutely  pure,  necessarily. 
It  is  little  used  to-day  in  rubber  mills,  except  in  some  lines  of  very 
fine  work.  It  has  the  advantage  of  being  absolutely  free  from 
the  smells  that  many  solvents  have.  A  little  is  sometimes  added 
to  ordinary  rubber  solutions  to  make  a  complete  solution  of  India- 
rubber  in  naphtha.  There  are  also  certain  processes,  expensive 
ones  to  be  sure,  for  treating  perished  rubber  with  Ether  vapor  to 
recover  it.  Ether  was  used  to  remove  sulphur  from  vulcanized 
India-rubber  waste  in  Newton's  camphine  process. 


i88  SOLVENTS   FOR    RUBBER, 

GASOLINE. — See  Naphtha. 

HEPTANE. — One  of  the  four  isomeric  hydrocarbons  of  the 
paraffine  series,  which  occurs  as  a  colorless  liquid  and  is  derived 
from  heavy  cannel  coal  oil,  petroleum,  etc.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  0.712.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  in  ether,  and  is  used  with 
paraffine  wax  and  India-rubber  in  water-repellent  compounds. 

ISOPRENE. — A  body  which  is  found  in  oil  of  caoutchouc.  It 
boils  at  98.6°  F.,  and  possesses  the  property  of  absorbing  quanti- 
ties of  oxygen  when  exposed  to  the  air,  in  consequence  of  which 
it  forms  itself  into  an  elastic .  spongy  mass.  This  same  volatile 
compound  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  moderate  heat  on  oil  of 
turpentine.  William  A.  Tilden,  D.  Sc.,  F.  R.  S.,  had  some  Iso- 
prene  from  turpentine  placed  in  a  bottle,  his  first  result  being  a 
limpid,  colorless  liquid.  After  a  time,  this  changed  in  appearance, 
looking  like  a  dense  syrup,  on  which  floated  several  hard  elastic 
masses.  On  examination,  they  turned  out  to  be  practically 
India-rubber.  This  rubber  united  with  sulphur  in  the  same 
way  as  ordinary  rubber,  forming  a  tough,  elastic  compound.  It 
was  also  soluble  in  benzine,  etc.  Dr.  Weber,  before  the  Society 
of  Chemical  Industry,  reported  on  Tilden's  discovery  that  Iso- 
prene  is  so  expensive  it  cannot  be  converted  into  rubber  without 
loss,  and  therefore  the  synthetical  manufacture  of  India-rubber, 
even  if  possible,  was  not  probable  at  the  present  time. 

LIGROIN. — See  Naphtha. 

METHANE. — Professor  Lascelles-Scott  describes  the  manu- 
facture of  what  he  calls  Methane  solvents,  which  are  really  ben- 
zines or  benzols  through  which  marsh  gas  has  been  passed.  He 
claims  that  a  benzine  containing  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  Methane, 
obtained  in  this  way,  yields  a  better  and  more  mobile  solution  than 
the  ordinary  solvent  naphtha,  and  the  solution  when  spread  dries 
off  better,  besides  giving  a  more  finished  surface. 

METHYLATED  ALCOHOL  is  also  called  methylated  spirits,  and 
wood  spirits.  It  is  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  wood,  and  in 
the  course  of  beet  sugar  manufacture.  It  is  a  colorless  mo- 
bile liquid,  of  a  vinous  smell,  similar  to  common  alcohol.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  0.814.  It  always  contains  acetone.  Although 
not  used  in  rubber  solutions,  it  is  a  very  common  solvent  for  cel- 
lulose products  which,  through  their  increasing  importance,  are 


NAPTHAS.  189 

attracting  the  interested  attention  of  the  rubber  trade.  Used  un- 
der Vaughn's  patent,  to  coagulate  Balata. 

NAPHTHAS. — The  term  Naphtha  was  originally  applied  to  a 
variety  of  pungent,  volatile,  inflammable  liquids  that  belonged 
chiefly  to  a  class  of  ethers ;  then  it  took  in  oils  of  natural  origin, 
such  as  rock  oil,  petroleum  oil,  etc;  at  a  later  date,  a  light  oil  of 
coal  tar,  which  should  properly  be  designated  benzol,  was  in- 
cluded under  the  name  of  Naphtha;  while  recently  it  has  been 
extended  so  that  it  covers  most  of  the  inflammable  liquids  dis- 
tilled dry  from  organic  substances.  It  is  applied  in  the  United 
States  to  a  series  of  hydrocarbons  that  are  obtained  from  petro- 
leum, whose  boiling  points  vary  with  the  densities,  from  65  to 
300°  F.  The  Naphthas  of  commerce  are  bog-head  naphtha,  ob- 
tained from  bog-head  coal ;  bone  naphtha,  or  DippePs  animal  oil ; 
coal  naphtha,  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  coal  tar;  wood 
naphtha,  or  methyl  alcohol  obtained  during  the  dry  distillation 
of  wood.  Of  these,  coal  tar  naphtha  and  petroleum  naphtha  are 
most  useful  to  rubber  manufacturers.  The  former  of  these  was 
used  largely  as  a  rubber  solvent,  but  to-day  it  is  almost  wholly 
replaced  by  petroleum  naphtha.  The  Naphtha  which  is  derived 
from  petroleum  comes  between  gasoline,  which  is  lighter,  and 
benzine,  which  is  heavier.  Benzene  is  contained  in  the  naphtha 
produced  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal,  while  benzine  is  a 
petroleum  product.  Benzine  is  really  the  first  product  that  arises 
from  the  process  of  refining  crude  oil,  and  bears  the  same  relation 
to  naphtha  that  the  distillate  does  to  refined  oil,  thus  showing 
that  benzine  is  simply  a  crude  Naphtha.  What  is  known  as  gaso- 
line has  a  proof  rate  of  86°  F.,  and  boils  at  90°  to  100°  F.  Warm 
currents  of  air  volatilize  this  type  of  Naphtha  very  rapidly,  and 
its  vapor  unites  with  the  atmosphere  in  explosive  proportions. 

Coal-tar  Naphtha  was  one  of  the  first  solvents  used  in  rub- 
ber work.  Macintosh,  as  far  back  as  1823,  prepared  it  himself 
for  dissolving  India-rubber  for  proofing.  There  is  obtained  from 
crude  Coal-tar  Naphtha  what  is  known  as  "once  run"  Naphtha 
and  "last  runnings."  The  once  run  Naptha  is  the  starting  point 
from  which  are  derived  the  various  grades  of  benzols,  solvent 
Naphthas,  etc.,  by  fractional  distillation.  The  specific  gravity  of 
solvent  Naphtha  should  not  exceed  0.875.  Its  composition  is  a 


190  SOLVENTS   FOR    RUBBER. 

very  complex  affair,  including  xylols,  cumols,  homologous  of  ben- 
zol, together  with  some  paraffine,  and  sometimes  a  little  naphtha- 
line. This  last-named  substance,  by  the  way,  is  often  objection- 
able, as  it  acts  upon  some  rubbers  like  animal  oil.  Naphtha  de- 
rives its  vegetable  solvent  power  largely  from  the  xylol  present  in 
it.  This  is  to-day  removed  and  sold  by  itself  as  a  solvent,  though 
the  residual  Naphtha  is  simply  robbed  of  that  much  virtue. 

Speaking  of  Naphthas,  Lascelles- Scott,  after  exhaustive  ex- 
periments, thus  describes  three  used  in  England  in  rubber  fac- 
tories. Petroleum  Naphtha  in  its  solvent  action  on  rubber  showed 
slight  action  in  the  cold  or  under  gentle  heat.  Viscid  masses  and 
semi-solutions  were  formed,  but  these  solutions  did  not  dry  well. 
The  same  Naphtha  had  almost  no  solvent  action  on  pitch.  Shale 
Naphtha  was  useful  only  in  dissolving  Madagascar  rubbers,  and 
had  no  action  on  pitch,  while  coal-tar  Naphtha  caused  almost  any 
rubber  to  swell  quickly  and,  after  gentle  heat,  to  effect  a  good 
solution.  It  also  readily  dissolved  pitch,  forming  a  deep  brown 
solution. 

The  problem  that  confronts  rubber  manufacturers  as  a  rule 
is  the  solution  of  gums  that  are  more  or  less  heavily  compounded, 
which  is  an  easier  problem  than  the  putting  into  solution  of  crude 
rubber  that  perhaps  has  not  been  broken  down  in  any  way.  At 
the  same  time  it  is  customary  in  many  cases  to  apply  a  little  heat 
during  the  mixing.  The  following  table  relates  to  petroleum 
Naphthas.  The  C  Naphtha  has  not  only  the  greatest  solvent 
power,  but  it  is  easier  to  evaporate  after  it  has  dissolved  the  rub- 
ber compound.  B  and  A  require  a  certain  amount  of  heat  to 
vaporize  them. 

Specific        Degrees  Boiling 

Products.  Gravity.        Beaume.  Points. 

Rhigolene 0.625  ••  65°  F. 

Gasolene 0.665  85  120°  F. 

C.     Naphtha 0.706  70  180°  F. 

B.    Naphtha 0.724  67  220°  F. 

A.    Naphtha 0.742  65  300°  F. 

Naphtha  is  more  largely  used  in  the  proofing  business  than 
any  other.  It  is,  however,  a  general  solvent  for  cements,  and 
quantities  of  it  are  used  in  almost  all  lines  of  rubber  work  where 
there  is  any  making  up  to  be  done  of  separate  pieces  after  calen- 
dering. It  is  therefore  necessary  that  a  good  grade  be  used,  when 


NAPTHAS—OIL   OF   TURPENTINE.  191 

one  considers  the  danger  that  may  come  from  fires  caused  by  the 
explosion  or  easy  ignition  of  low  grade  solvents.  Odorless  Naph- 
thas are  those  from  which  naphthalene,  a  solid  white  body,  has 
been  removed,  as  it  is  the  presence  of  this  body  that  causes  the 
strong  smell.  Naphtha  treated  by  sulphuric  acid  is  deodorized, 
acquiring  a  rather  pleasant  odor  as  a  consequence.  It  is  often 
mixed  with  other  solvents — for  example,  with  oil  of  turpentine — 
and  is  found  thus  to  have  a  better  effect  on  the  rubber. 

NAPHTHALINE  (called  also  Anthracine). — Commercially 
obtained  from  coal  tar,  being  among  the  third  and  fourth  pro- 
ducts of  the  distillation  of  that  body.  Naphthaline  is  usually  sold 
in  rolls  made  by  melting  the  large  silvery  plates  or  scales  in  which 
it  crystalizes  and  running  the  melted  compound  into  molds.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  1.15.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  and  petroleum 
naphtha,  but  the  liquids  derived  from  coal  tar  dissolve  it  easily. 
Naphthaline  is  sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  but  readily 
in  benzol.  It  is  used  in  insulating  paints,  as  when  it  evaporates 
it  leaves  a  very  solid  film  that  is  said  to  be  absolutely  free  from 
porosity. 

NITRO  BENZOL. — A  compound  obtained  by  boiling  benzol 
with  nitric  acid.  It  is  a  brown,  heavy,  oily  looking  liquid,  having 
a  specific  gravity  of  i  .2,  a  burning  sweet  taste,  and  a  smell  resem- 
bling that  of  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  It  is  used  in  the  analysis  of 
vulcanized  India-rubber  to  dissolve  the  substitute  that  may  be 
incorporated  in  it.  It  is  produced  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on 
benzene,  also  called  nitro-benzene.  Used  by  Parkes  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Parkensine.  (See  Acids  and  Alkalies;  also  Naphtha.) 

OIL  OF  TURPENTINE  (crude)  is  what  is  known  as  an  oleo 
resin,  and  is  of  about  the  consistency  of  fresh  honey.  There  are 
more  than  a  dozen  varieties  on  the  market,  the  more  common  be- 
ing Bordeaux,  Venice,  Canadian,  and  American.  A  fair  quality 
of  turpentine  oil  should  begin  to  boil  at  160°  F.  The  distillation 
of  turpentine  in  water  produces  ordinary  resin.  Oil  of  Turpen- 
tine is  used  in  certain  waterproof  cements,  in  connection  with 
both  Gutta-percha  and  India-rubber.  Where  oil  of  turpentine 
is  necessary  for  rubber  work,  it  is  well  to  have  it  free  from  the 
considerable  percentage  of  water  which  it  invariably  contains. 
This  is  done  by  a  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid,  or  by  rectifying 


192  SOLVENTS  FOR  RUBBER. 

it  over  burnt  lime.  Turpentine,  particularly  that  known  as  Venice 
Turpentine,  is  often  used  in  connection  with  linseed  oil  and  sul- 
phur in  the  production  of  rubber  substitutes.  Professor  Tilden 
showed,  some  years  ago,  that  what  appeared  to  be  pure  India- 
rubber  could  be  obtained  from  turpentine;  indeed,  he  announced 
that  he  had  produced  it  on  a  small  scale.  The  same  thing  was 
also  observed  by  Bouchardt.  Venice  Turpentine  is  obtained  from 
Switzerland,  where  it  is  procured  from  the  Larix  Europea,  or 
larch.  The  genuine  Venice  Turpentine  is  of  the  consistency  of 
honey,  cloudy,  yellowish,  or  slightly  greenish.  It  is  entirely  solu- 
ble in  alcohol.  The  commercial  Venice  Turpentine  is  a  factious 
substance,  usually  quite  brown,  and  is  prepared  by  dissolving 
rosin  in  oil  of  turpentine.  Venice  Turpentine  is  largely  used  in 
cements.  Bordeaux  Turpentine  is  the  ordinary  turpentine  of  com- 
merce, getting  its  name  from  the  port  in  France  whence  it  is  ex- 
ported. (See  Spirits  of  Turpentine.) 

PENTANE. — A  hydrocarbon  of  the  paraffine  or  methane  se- 
ries. A  colorless,  volatile  liquid  which  occurs  in  petroleum.  Pen- 
tane  is  used  with  paraffine  wax  and  India-rubber  in  water-repel- 
lent compounds. 

PETROLEUM. — A  mixture  of  several  hydrocarbons  which,  in 
fluid  form,  issue  from  the  ground  in  many  parts  of  the  world ; 
also  known  as  rock  oil.  It  varies  in  consistency  from  a  thin, 
/ight,  colorless  fluid  with  a  specific  gravity  of  about  0.750,  to  a 
substance  as  thick  as  butter,  and  almost  as  heavy  as  water.  AH 
kinds,  however,  have  about  the  same  constitution,  consisting  of 
carbon  and  hydrogen  compounds  only,  and  containing  no  oxygen. 
Asphalt  and  bitumen  are  closely  allied  to  petroleum.  This  oil  is 
often  used  for  restoring  rubber  that  is  oxidized  somewhat,  by  im- 
mersion, and  then  hanging  for  a  couple  of  days  in  a  warm  atmos- 
phere. Petroleum  is  very  rarely  used  in  rubber  manufacture,  for 
although  a  good  solvent,  it  weakens  the  goods  exceedingly.  Crude 
petroleum,  however,  is  a  valuable  adjunct  to  the  reclaiming  of 
rubber,  where,  in  the  form  of  a  cheap  residuum,  it  assists  in  de- 
vulcanization  and  in  sheeting.  (See  Naphtha.) 

THION. — A  substitute  for  bisulphide  of  carbon,  manufac- 
tured in  England,  which  is  said  to  mix  excellently  with  chloride 
of  sulphur  and  is  non-poisonous. 


TOLUENE— SPIRITS    OF    TURPENTINE.         193 

TOLUENE. — That  oil  which  is  distilled  from  coal  tar  at  a  tem- 
perature of  230°  to  234°  F.,  also  called  methyl  benzine  and  Tol- 
uol. It  resembles  benzene  in  outward  appearance.  Two-thirds 
of  the  commercial  50  per  cent,  benzol  is  made  up  of  Toluene,  and 
this  it  is  that  makes  it  a  far  better  solvent  for  rubber  than  ben- 
zine itself,  as  it  dissolves  the  rubber  in  five-sixths  of  the  time.  The 
solutions  are  more  mobile;  it  has  a  higher  boiling  point;  and, 
given  a  quantity  of  the  solvent,  will  reduce  more  gum.  It  does 
not  chill  in  cold  weather,  but  keeps  on  macerating.  It  leaves  a 
more  solid  deposit  than  does  benzine,  and  does  not  induce  head- 
ache or  sickness  among  the  workmen.  [Lasceiies-Scott.] 

RESIN  OIL. — This  is  obtained  by  subjecting  rosin  to  dry  dis- 
tillation, the  specific  gravity  of  the  resultant  oil  ranging  from 
0.96  to  0.99.  It  is  rarely  used  as  a  solvent  for  rubber,  in  the  ordi- 
nary meaning  of  the  term.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  not  a  good 
solvent  for  crude  rubber.  For  compounded  rubbers,  however, 
it  also  works  well  and  is  often  used,  particularly  in  connection 
with  pseudo  guttas.  In  certain  insulating  experiments,  where  a 
thin  sheet  of  Gutta-percha  covered  the  conductor,  and  the  outer 
Gutta-percha  tube  was  full  of  resin  oil,  it  gave,  according  to  Pro- 
fessor D.  E.  Hughes,  F.  R.  S.,  a  higher  insulation  test  than  Gutta- 
percha  alone.  Professor  Hughes  used  resin  oil  quite  thick  and 
viscid,  and  added  resin  and  a  solid  residuum  obtained  from  the 
distillation  of  palm  oil.  Resin  oil  in  rubber  compounding,  how- 
ever, softens  the  compound  in  a  marked  degree.  (See  Oils.) 

RHIGOLENE. — See  Naphtha. 

SPIRITS  OF  TURPENTINE  is  really  oil  of  turpentine,  and  it  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  0.864.  It  is  colorless,  transparent,  of  a  strong 
odor,  and  a  bitter  taste.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  on  which  it  floats, 
but  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  the  fixed  and  essential 
oils.  It  is  an  excellent  solvent  for  sulphur,  resin,  and  India-rub- 
ber. Spirits  of  turpentine,  with  wood  spirit  alcohol,  aniline,  and 
nitric  acid  is  used  in  surface  work  on  vulcanized  India-rubber. 
The  earliest  records  of  India-rubber  speak  of  this  oil  as  a  solvent 
for  it ;  indeed,  the  whole  secret  of  rubber  compounding  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  even  when  the  great  Roxbury  Rubber  Co.,  of  Bos- 
ton, was  running,  was  the  solution  of  India-rubber  in  it.  It  is 
used  in  solutions  that  are  expected  to  be  sticky,  and  to  dry  slowly. 


194  SOLVENTS  FOR  RUBBER. 

VULCOLEINE  is  a  liquid  of  English  origin,  and  is  put  upon 
the  market  at  about  the  same  price  as  carbon  bisulphide,  and  used 
for  a  solvent  for  India-rubber.  It  leaves  on  evaporation  a  per- 
fectly tough  and  elastic  film,  quite  unlike  that  left  by  coal  tar 
naphtha,  or  the  usual  solvents.  It  mixes  instantly  with  chloride 
of  sulphur,  and  is  intended  to  replace  bisulphide  of  carbon  in  the 
cold  curing  process.  It  has  no  bad  smell,  nor  is  it  unhealthful. 

WOOD  SPIRIT  (also  known  as  Pyroxylic  acid). — This  is  made 
from  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood.  Wood  Spirit  resembles 
alcohol  and  its  affinities,  forming  an  ether  and  a  series  of  com- 
pounds exactly  corresponding  to  that  of  spirits  of  wine.  Wood 
Spirit,  when  pure,  is  a  thin,  colorless  liquid,  with  a  peculiar  odor 
and  a  hot  disagreeable  taste.  It  boils  at  152°  F.,  and  its  density  is 
.798  at  60°.  It  mixes  freely  with  water,  and,  like  alcohol,  dissolves 
resins  and  volatile  oils,  and  is  used  as  a  cheap  substitute  for  that 
purpose.  Wood  Spirit,  also  known  as  methylic  alcohol,  is  not  me- 
thylated spirit.  It  is  not  a  solvent  of  rubber,  but  is  used  in  many 
compounds  that  are  intended  as  substitutes  for  vulcanized  rubber. 
It  is  also  used  in  dyeing  India-rubber  in  connection  with  nitric 
acid,  alcohol,  and  aniline. 

XYLOL. — A  colorless,  somewhat  aromatic,  inflammable,  oily 
liquid  found  in  coal  tar  and  wood  tar ;  also  called  Xylene.  It  is 
really  the  solvent  principle  found  in  mineral  naphthas.  (Sec 
Naphtha.) 


CHAPTER  XII. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PROCESSES  AND  COMPOUNDS  FOR  USE  IN  THE  RUBBER 

FACTORY. 

MANY  interesting  formulas  are  given  for  the  dyeing  and  sur- 
face coloring  of  rubber,  although  the  processes  are  not  such  as 
will  generally  be  used.  A  suggestion  that  comes  from  France  is 
the  dipping  of  rubber  for  an  instant  in  a  bath  of  nitric  acid,  then 
washing  in  water.  For  coloring,  the  rubber  is  dipped  in  an  alco- 
holic solution  of  fuchsine.  The  experimenter  should  appreciate 
fully,  however,  the  effect  that  nitric  acid  produces  on  rubber,  and 
govern  himself  accordingly. 

Alexander  Parkes,  who  produced  some  exceedingly  valuable 
processes  for  the  treatment  of  rubber,  gives  the  following  for- 
mulas for  dyeing  India-rubber: 

Black. — Boil  from  15  to  30  minutes  in  a  liquid  prepared  as 
follows:  Sulphate  copper,  i  pound;  water,  i  gallon;  caustic  am- 
monia or  muriate  of  ammonia,  i  pound.  Or:  Sulphate  of  bisul- 
phate  potash,  i  pound ;  sulphate  copper,  12  pounds ;  water,  i  gal- 
lon. 

Green. — Muriate  ammonia,  2  pounds;  sulphate  copper,  i 
pound;  caustic  lime,  4  pounds;  water,  i  gallon.  Boil  the  rubber 
as  before,  15  to  30  minutes. 

Purple. — Sulphate  or  bisulphate  of  potash,  i  pound ;  sulphate 
of  copper,  ^  pound ;  sulphate  of  indigo,  £  pound.  Boil  the  rubber, 
15  to  30  minutes. 

Hoffer  gives  almost  the  same  ingredients  for  producing  these 
colors,  adding  the  information  that  the  articles  are  dyed  by  being 
boiled  in  these  fluids  from  15  to  30  minutes,  the  thicker  the  arti- 
cle the  longer  the  boiling.  This  is  done  before  the  goods  are  vul- 
canized. 

Hard  rubber  may  be  decorated  by  means  of  pigments  mixed 
with  shellac  and  applied  to  the  given  surface  with  a  brush.  The 
surface  then  is  to  be  pressed  with  some  force  against  a  hot  plate 
of  metal,  whereby  the  colors  are  made  to  appear  as  though  inte- 
gral with  the  rubber. 

Wood  coated  a  sheet  of  vulcanizable  rubber  with  chloride  of 

195 


196  MISCELLANEOUS  PROCESSES. 

silver,  the  idea  being  to  use  it  in  dental  plates.  Various  processes 
have  also  been  brought  out  for  the  surface  treatment  of  rubber 
with  gold  leaf,  bronzes,  etc.,  usually  applied  in  the  form  of  pow- 
ders, in  the  manner  in  which  flock  is  applied.  Truman  also  pa- 
tented a  process  for  electro-gilding  rubber  dental  plates  after 
they  were  finished.  Goodyear  dusted  unvulcanized  rubber  sur- 
faces with  plumbago  or  powdered  metal,  to  make  them  conduc- 
tive, pressed  the  dust  in,  and  then  electroplated  it. 

The  embossing  of  India-rubber  surfaces  has  been  practised 
almost  since  the  invention  of  the  "triple  compound."  It  is  really 
nothing  more  than  a  light  surface  molding.  This  is  done  some- 
times by  embossing  rolls,  the  rubber  being  cured  after  the  impres- 
sion is  taken,  and  sometimes  by  being  vulcanized  on  the  impres- 
sion plate. 

Bourbridge  patented  a  process  for  embossing  rubber  by  roll- 
ing it  tightly  on  a  drum  with  embossed  paper  or  bookbinders' 
cloth,  and  semi-curing  it  in  that  form,  preferably  by  boiling  at  a 
temperature  from  212°  to  220°  F.  This  boiling  operation  was 
not  really  vulcanization,  but  simply  a  means  of  setting  the  rubber 
which  was  afterward  made  up  into  goods  and  cured. 

In  producing  sheets  of  India-rubber  for  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco  pouches,  balls,  balloons,  etc.,  by  this  process,  the  sheet  is 
calendered  on  sized  cloth,  partially  vulcanized,  printed,  coated 
with  transparent  India-rubber,  the  goods  made  up,  and  the  vul- 
canizing process  completed. 

A  great  many  beautiful  colors  are  added  to  India-rubber  sur- 
faces by  coating  the  sheet  with  a  thin  adhesive  solution,  dusting 
it  over  with  colored  flock,  and  then  vulcanizing.  By  this  process 
any  color  can  be  given  to  rubber  surfaces  which  have  a  cloth-like 
appearance. 

Kelley  produced  a  bronzed  appearance  on  rubber  coated  fab- 
rics by  means  of  a  roller  partly  immersed  in  a  trough  holding  the 
dye,  curing  either  by  dry  heat,  or  by  chloride  of  sulphur.  His 
solution  consisted  of  2  ounces  alcohol  spirits,  I  ounce  wood  naph- 
tha, 10  drops  nitric  acid,  I  ounce  spirits  of  turpentine,  with  suffi- 
cient aniline  dye  to  make  the  desired  color,  4  ounces  liquid  dye- 
ing, 3  pounds  rubber  composition.  He  also  impregnated  farina 
with  aniline  solutions,  dried  it.  and  mixed  it  in  the  compound. 


COLORED  DESIGNS  FOR  FABRICS.  197 

In  certain  dyeing  processes  lakes  are  necessary.  _What  is 
known  as  caoutchouc  lake  is  made  by  steeping  i  ounce  of  Para 
rubber  in  a  quart  of  light  camphor  oil,  exposed  to  the  sunlight  for 
several  days.  This  is  said  to  be  excellent  for  binding  colors. 

Matthew's  process  for  producing  colored  designs  for  proofed 
fabrics  is  to  first  coat  the  fabric  in  the  ordinary  manner  with  pure 
or  colored  India-rubber.  When  the  design  is  to  be  printed  on  a 
black  or  dark  ground,  the  last  coating  is  mixed  with  starch  or 
some  powder  that  will  render  it  non-adhesive,  and  to  an  extent 
absorptive.  The  fabric  is  then  partially  vulcanized,  when  the  de- 
signs are  printed  on  the  desired  surface,  just  as  oil-cloth  or  lino- 
leum is  printed.  The  vulcanization  is  finished  preferably  by  using 
chloride  of  sulphur. 

Colors  suitable  for  admixture  with  rubber  should  answer  the 
following  requirements:  They  must  be  unaffected  by  water,  by 
acids,  by  alkalies,  and  by  chloride  of  sulphur.  Further  than  this, 
they  must  not  be  affected  by  sulphur  at  temperatures  ranging  from 
200°  to  300°  F.  The  colors  must  not  be  soluble  in  or  affected  by 
naphtha  or  other  solvents  used  in  rubber  work.  They  must  not 
be  affected  by  heat  up  to  300°  F.  According  to  Frankenburg, 
his  invention  of  aniline  lakes  answers  all  these  requirements.  His 
description  is  as  follows: 

(A)  Lakes  prepared  from  acid  aniline  colors. — "I  have  found 
that  by  converting  any  of  the  acids  or  sulphonated  aniline  colors 
into  compound  lakes,  such  as  barium-alumina,  calcium-alumina, 
barium-chromium,  or  calcium-chromium  lakes,  colors  are  obtain- 
ed answering  all  the  above  requirements,  and  therefore  eminently 
suitable  for  the  dyeing  of  India-rubber,  waterproof,  and  other 
articles.  The  aniline  dyes  best  suited  for  the  production  of  these 
lakes  are  those  known  as  azo  or  dis-azo  colors.  From  colors  of 
this  description  I  prepare  lakes  in  the  following  manner:  50 
pounds  of  orange  II.,  or  any  other  suitable  azo  or  dis-azo  color, 
and  112  pounds  of  soda  crystals  are  dissolved  in  100  gallons  of 
water  at  170°  F.  This  solution  is  then  precipitated  with  a  solu- 
tion of  150  pounds  of  barium  chloride.  The  precipitate  is  kept 
boiling  for  half  an  hour.  It  is  then  left  to  stand,  and  washed  seve- 
ral times  with  fresh  water.  Eventually  a  solution  of  40  pounds 
of  alumina  sulphate  is  added  very  gradually,  when  a  bright,  fast, 


198  MISCELLANEOUS   PROCESSES. 

and  flocculent  lake  is  obtained,  which,  after  filtration,  drying,  and 
pulverizing,  is  ready  for  incorporation  with  the  India-rubber 
dough.  It  is  evident  that  a  great  many  variations  of  the  process 
may  be  devised,  but  in  every  case  the  important  point  is  the  con- 
version of  the  aniline  dye  into  one  of  the  above-mentioned  com- 
pound lakes.  As  regards  the  proportions  given  above,  they  are, 
of  course,  subject  to  such  variations  as  are  in  accordance  with  the 
molecular  weights  and  the  commercial  purity  of  the  materials 
used,  as  well  as  with  the  particular  properties  and  qualities  to  be 
imparted  to  the  lakes  for  the  purpose  they  are  intended  to  serve. 
Using  in  this  manner  the  numerous  azo  and  dis-azo  dyes  a  very 
great  variety  of  lakes  may  be  produced,  comprising  all  conceivable 
shades,  and  all  suitable  for  the  dyeing  of  India-rubber  articles  of 
every  description.  The  lakes  prepared  from  the  acid  oxy-ketone 
dyes  and  most  of  the  natural  dyes  are  very  little  suitable  for  this 
purpose,  owing  to  their  indifferent  and  dull  shades." 

(B)  Lakes  prepared  from  basic  coloring  matters. — "A  large 
number  of  lakes  derived  from  this  class  of  dyes  are  also  suited 
for  the  dyeing  of  India-rubber  articles,  although  many  of  them 
are  lacking  in  fastness  to  light  acids  and  alkalies.  To  produce 
a  perfect  compound  lake  from  these  dyes  tannic  acid  and  anti- 
mony, along  with  aluminum  and  barium,  are  used  for  the  complete 
fixation  and  precipitation  of  these  lakes.  The  following  propor- 
tions give  good  results:  Soda  carbonate,  128  pounds;  barium 
chloride,  no  pounds;  thioflavine,  25  pounds;  tannic  acid,  20 
pounds,  acetate  of  soda,  20  pounds;  sulphate  of  alumina,  100 
pounds.  These  colors  can  be  made  faster  by  adding  to  them  a 
small  quantity  of  antimony  potassio-tartrate.  The  proportions  of 
tannic  acid,  sodium  acetate,  and  tartar  emetic  used  in  this  process 
vary  considerably  with  the  different  basic  colors,  such  variations 
being  due  to  the  difference  in  the  atomic  weights  and  commer- 
cial purity  of  the  basic  dyes." 

Hebblewaite  and  Holts's  process  for  producing  designs  on 
gossamer  cloth  calls  for  the  spreading  over  the  rubber  surface  of 
farina  or  other  powder,  then  running  the  fabric  through  embos- 
sed rollers  and  producing  patterns  thereon. 

Mosley's  ornamented  fabric  was  a  gossamer  cloth  covered 
with  farina,  the  surface  being  printed  much  as  calico  is,  and  then 


THE    CRAVENETTE   PROCESS.  199 

vulcanized  with  chloride  of  sulphur.  The  colors  were  mixed  with 
suitable  solvents  and  a  certain  amount  of  paraffine  or  India-rub- 
ber added.  A  part  of  this  invention  was  also  the  use  of  an  en- 
graved roller,  which  revolved  in  the  vulcanizing  solution,  and 
came  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  rubber,  only  at  its  raised 
portion.  Directly  after  passing  over  the  roller,  if  the  surface  of 
the  rubber  were  dusted  with  farina,  it  would  adhere  to  the  por- 
tions that  had  come  in  contact  with  the  roller,  and  not  to  the  rest, 
thus  producing  a  design  on  the  fabric.  The  whole  of  the  coating 
was  afterwards  cured  by  vapor. 

SHOWER-PROOF  PROCESSES. 

THE  Cravenette  and  other  processes  for  rendering  textile 
fabrics  waterproof  or  water-repellent  have  attracted  so  much  at- 
tention in  the  rubber  trade  that  space  will  be  given  here  to  a  de- 
scription of  the  Wiley  patent,  which  is  used  at  the  Cravenette 
Works,  Bradford,  England.  To  begin,  the  waterproofing  com- 
pound is  applied  in  a  solid  or  hard  state  by  the  action  of  friction 
and  heating.  In  other  words,  there  are  no  solvents  used,  nor  is 
it  a  calendering  process.  The  advantage  of  this  is  a  lessening  in 
the  cost  of  applying  waterproofing  solutions  and  a  further  valua- 
ble result  is  that  the  dyes  on  various  fabrics  are  in  no  way  dis- 
turbed, and  no  unpleasant  odor  is  developed  or  imparted  to  the 
cloth.  The  substances  chosen  are  those  which  have  a  low  melt- 
ing point,  so  that  the  fabrics  are  not  damaged  by  heat.  They  are 
preferably  ozocerite,  stearine,  spermaceti,  paraffine  wax,  beeswax, 
or  Japanese  wax.  These  are  sometimes  used  singly,  and  sometimes 
in  combination,  considerable  judgment  being  necessary  in  selecting 
those  which  have  an  affinity  for  or  are  readily  absorbed  by  the 
fibers  of  particular  fabrics,  influenced  also  by  the  nature  and 
color  of  the  fabric.  In  some  cases  India-rubber,  Gutta-percha, 
maltha,  asphaltum,  resin,  and  artificial  gums  are  found  valuable 
in  small  proportions,  and  in  conjunction  with  the  substances  al- 
ready mentioned. 

In  order  to  apply  the  waterproofing  substance,  it  is  formed 
into  slabs.  The  fabric  is  carried  on  a  reel  supported  in  bearings 
between  suitable  frames,  at  the  opposite  end  of  which  is  a  hollow 
cylinder  mounted  upon  carrying  rollers  and  supported  laterally 


200  MISCELLANEOUS   PROCESSES. 

by  side  rollers.  This  cylinder  is  rilled  with  water.  The  slab  of 
the  compound,  wider  than  the  fabric  to  be  coated,  is  fixed  in  a 
holder  above  the  cylinder.  This  holder  is  so  arranged  that  the 
weight  presses  the  slab  against  the  cylinder.  The  fabric  is  then 
drawn  from  the  reel  over  and  under  tension  bars,  under  a  support- 
ing roller,  between  it  and  the  rubber  cylinder,  and  around  the 
cylinder  and  under  the  slab,  then  over  the  guide  roller  and  into  a 
drying  machine.  The  friction  of  the  cloth  wears  the  slab  away 
and  uniformly  deposits  it  upon  the  cloth,  while  in  the  drying  ma- 
chine, the  heat  melts  the  waterproofing  compound,  and  it  is  ab- 
sorbed by  the  fibers  which  are  thereby  rendered  waterproof  or 
water-repellent. 

Other  formulas  for  shower-proofing  and  waterproofing  are 
of  interest  in  this  connection  and  a  few  are  given: 

The  first  is  a  German  waterproofing  compound:  Alum,  10 
pounds;  sugar  of  lead,  10  pounds.  Dissolve  in  hot  water  and 
allow  the  precipitate  to  settle.  Dilute  the  clear  liquid  with  120 
gallons  water  and  add  2  pounds  isinglass  in  solution.  The  goods 
are  steeped  in  this  solution  8  or  10  hours. 

An  American  shower-proof  compound:  Liquid  silicate  of 
soda  or  liquor  of  flint,  I  gallon ;  white  oxide  of  zinc,  i  pound.  If 
the  fabric  is  to  be  colored,  add  coloring  matters.  The  mixture 
may  be  applied  to  fabrics  hot  or  cold,  by  means  of  a  brush  or  by 
immersion  of  the  fabrics,  which  are  afterwards  to  be  run  between 
rollers. 

Another  American  compound :  Dissolve  separately,  i  J  pounds 
alum  (in  hot  water),  10  ounces  acetate  of  lead  (in  hot  water), 
and  ij  pounds  carbonate  of  magnesia  (in  hot  water).  They 
should  aggregate  about  31  quarts.  Add  the  acetate  of  lead  to  the 
alum  solution,  and  then  the  carbonate  of  magnesia;  after  which 
10  quarts  liquid  as  above  and  I  tablespoon  white  gum  arabic.  Stir 
J  hour ;  let  stand  24  hours,  skimming  now  and  then ;  in  48  hours 
the  first  mixture  will  be  ready.  Lay  the  fabric  in  a  vessel  and 
pour  liquid  over  it,  beating  the  fabric  well  and  removing  it  withm 
an  hour. 

A  third  American  shower-proof  compound : 

A.    Carbonate  of  soda 16  parts. 

Lime 8  parts. 

Water 32  parts. 


WATERPROOFING    COMPOUNDS.  201 

Boil  30  minutes,  let  settle  and  pour  off  the  clear  lye. 

B.  Glue  or  gelatine : 3  parts. 

Linseed  oil 3  parts. 

Add  after  soaking  glue  in  cold  water  12  hours. 

C.  Tallow  (or  other  animal  fat) 16  parts. 

Rosin 8  parts. 

Melt  together. 

To  (A)  boiling  hot  add  hot  (C),  then  pour  in  (B)  and  stir  hot  until  well 
mixed. 

D.  Sulphate  of  alumina i    pound. 

Acetete  of  lead %,  pound. 

Boiling  water 8  gallons. 

Let  settle  and  draw  off  clear  liquor  for  use.  To  i  gallon  water  add  )^ 
ounce  of  first  product  for  bath  for  cotton  goods.  Add  %  ounce  for  silk 
or  wool.  Immerse  24  hours  or  more,  then  six  hours  or  more  in  second 
compound  (D). 

Proofing  compound: 

Mixture  i. — Dissolve  in  water,  50  parts  alum;  also  dissolve 
in  water,  35  parts  sugar  of  lead ;  mix. 

Mixture  2. — Combine  17  parts  paraffine  and  35  parts  ben- 
zine; drop  into '  this  17  parts  Caoutchouc.  Stir  until  well  dis- 
solved. 

Mixture  3. — To  the  clear  decanted  liquor  from  the  above 
mixtures,  add  8  parts  alcohol  and  4  parts  eau  de  cologne  (or  oil 
of  lemon.) 

An  English  compound  for  waterproofing  textile  fabrics: 
Sugar  soap,  i  pound;  water,  16  gallons.  Soak  articles  in  them 
for  6  hours ;  drain,  but  do  not  wring  them ;  and  place  them  in  the 
following  solution : 

Alum,  i  pound;  water,  16  gallons;  soak  again  6  hours,  take 
out  and  dry  without  wringing. 

Another  English  compound  for  waterproofing  textile  fabrics : 
Concentrated  size,  8  pounds;  aluminum  sulphate,  5  pounds;  ba- 
rium chloride,  6  pounds;  water,  16  gallons.  After  coating,  var- 
nish with  the  f  ollowing:  Melt  together  22  pounds  colophony, 
4  3~5  pounds  crystalized  soda,  and  1 1  pounds  water.  Then  add : 
Ammonical  fluid,  5^  pounds;  and  water,  55  pounds;  or:  Borax, 
6  pounds ;  shellac,  6  pounds ;  and  water,  40  pounds. 

A  German  compound  for  waterproofing  woolens:  Dissolve 
100  pounds  alum  in  moderate  quantity  of  boiling  water;  soak  100 
pounds  glue  till  it  has  taken  up  twice  its  weight  of  cold  water, 


202  MISCELLANEOUS  PROCESSES. 

then  apply  heat  to  dissolve  it ;  stir  5  pounds  tannin  and  2  pounds 
soluble  glass  well  into  the  glue,  then  add  the  alum  solution.  Enter 
the  goods  at  80°  C,  and  steep  30  minutes.  Take  out  and  drain 
several  hours,  stretch  on  a  frame,  and,  when  dry,  calender. 

A  German  shower-proof  compound:  Stir  9  pounds  casein 
well  in  32  quarts  water,  adding  little  by  little  25  pounds  of  slaked 
lime.  Add  a  solution  of  4^  pounds  soap  in  26  quarts  water. 

Filter  and  treat  the  cloth  with  the  liquid.  Dress  with  a 
dressing  of  acetate  of  alumina,  by  which  the  casein  is  rendered 
insoluble  in  the  fibers  of  the  cloth.  After  two  applications,  rinse 
the  goods  with  hot  water,  press  strongly,  and  dry. 

One  process  for  waterproofing  threads  and  yarns  used  in 
weaving  ducks  and  other  fabrics  is  in  two  parts,  the  first  of  which 
relates  to  a  tanning  mixture  in  which  the  yarns  are  immersed, 
consisting  of :  Birch  bark,  14  pounds;  bichromate  of  potash,  I 
pound ;  chloride  of  calcium,  \  pound ;  tar  i  pint ;  solution  of  alkali, 
2  pounds.  The  threads  are  first  boiled  in  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of 
alkali  to  destroy  perishable  matter,  after  which  they  are  immersed 
in  the  tanning  liquid  and  dried.  The  second  part  consists  of 
preparing  or  dressing  the  threads  with  the  following  compound: 

Poppyseed  oil,  2  gallons;  India-rubber  solution,  2  pounds; 
red  oxide  of  mercury,  i  pound ;  resin,  28  pounds ;  beeswax,  28 
pounds;  palm  oil,  14  pounds.  The  threads  after  this  treatment 
are  wound  on  reels  for  weaving. 

Forster,  as  far  back  as  1847,  made  a  water-repellent  com- 
pound in  which  he  used  spermaceti,  wax,  and  stearine,  while  three 
years  prior  to  that  Townsend  used  two  solutions  to  accomplish 
that  end,  the  first  being  water,  calcined  British  gum,  white  soap, 
logwood  liquor,  and  rock  alum ;  the  second  being  water,  sulphate 
of  zinc,  calcined  British  gum,  and  palm  soap. 

The  Kyanized  cloth  process  is  well  known  in  connection  with 
preserving  fabrics,  the  treatment  being  with  a  mixture  of  cor- 
rosive sublimate,  chloride  of  zinc,  pyrolignite  of  iron,  oil  of  tar, 
and  resinous  matters.  Fabrics  treated  in  this  way  have  been  used 
for  the  manufacture  of  hose,. 

Crape  cloth  is  a  fabric  which  has  much  the  appearance  of  real 
crape,  but  is  far  less  expensive.  It  is  treated  with  processes  simi- 
lar to  the  Cravenette  process,  which  make  it  both  waterproof  and 


DEODOR1ZATION.  203 

durable.  Two  patents  for  this  process  have  been  granted  to  W. 
E.  B.  Priestly. 

According  to  Dr.  Doremus  the  lightest  fabrics  are  rendered 
uninflammable  by  dipping  them  in  a  solution  of  phosphate  of 
alumina  in  water. 

Allard's  fireproof  felt  is  made  of  50  per  cent,  of  asbestos  and 
50  per  cent,  of  animal  hair,  and  for  ordinary  purposes  is  wholly 
fireproof. 

Canvas  for  sails  and  other  purposes,  which  it  is  desired  to 
render  waterproof,  is  treated  by  the  Dumas  process  so  that,  while 
it  is  both  waterproof  and  fireproof,  it  is  still  elastic  and  perme- 
able by  air.  The  treatment  is  this :  The  material  is  first  put  in  a 
solution  of  gelatine,  then  run  through  pressure  rollers  ,and  spread 
in  the  open  air  to  dry ;  later  it  is  dipped  in  a  cold  solution  of  alum 
again  exposed  to  the  air,  then  washed  in  cold  water,  and  finally 
dried. 

Frankenburg's  waterproof  cloth  is  made  in  this  manner: 
Both  warp  and  woof  are  coated  in  the  yarn  with  India-rubber, 
then  powdered  with  farina,  then  woven,  after  which  the  fabric 
is  calendered,  and  the  result  is  a  cloth  that  is  thoroughly  water- 
proof, and  yet  does  not  give  evidence  of  having  rubber  in  its 
make-up. 

Smith's  porous  waterproof  fabric  called  for  a  compound 
made  of  100  parts  of  paraffine  melted  by  heat,  to  which  was  add- 
ed 15  per  cent,  of  India-rubber,  the  mixture  being  kept  from  5 
to  30  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  The  solution,  either 
as  it  is,  or  with  a  solvent,  is  then  transferred  to  the  cloth  by  means 
of  a  set  of  rollers  which  have  a  temperature  of  about  70°  C. 

DEODORIZATION. 

THE  odors  that  cling  to  vulcanized  rubber  goods  and  to  Gut- 
ta-percha are  often  very  objectionable,  and  the  following  proces- 
ses are  given  for  deodorization : 

CattelPs  process:  For  every  pound  of  well  cleaned  Gutta- 
percha  take  15  pounds  of  the  following  solution:  Benzole,  I  gal- 
lon ;  alcohol,  i  ounce ;  glycerine,  30  drops.  Or :  Benzole,  I  gallon ; 
nitrate  of  the  oxide  of  ethyl,  30  drops;  heat  in  a  closed  vessel 
to  110°  F.  The  Gutta-percha  is  recovered  by  cooling  to  below 


204  MISCELLANEOUS  PROCESSES. 

32°  F.,  and  pressing  or  by  distilling  off  the  solvent,  or  by  precipi- 
tation with  fusel  oil. 

Freeley's  process :  Dip  vulcanized  rubber  goods  in  a  solution 
of :  Salicylic  acid,  20  grains ;  alcohol,  |  pint.  This  will  deodorize 
them,  but  goods  will  be  toughened  and  the  deodorization  increased 
by  subjecting  goods  to  a  bath  in  hot  or  cold  solution  composed 
as  follows: 

(A)  Bark  of  oak,  50  pounds;  bark  of  hemlock,  50  pounds; 
bark  of  sumac,  50  pounds ;  water,  900  gallons. 

(B)  Solution  as  above,  2  gallons;  salicylic  acid,  20  grains; 
large  tablespoonful  of  Russian  Jackten  extract,  dissolved  in  2 
pints  of  alcohol,  I  pint  of  ether,  and  10  grains  of  salicylic  acid. 

Bourne's  process:  The  articles  to  be  deodorized  are  placed 
between  layers  of  charcoal  and  heated  from  120°  to  150°  F.,  if 
unvulcanized ;  180°  F.  if  partially  vulcanized;  or  212°  F.,  if 
completely  vulcanized.  Heat  for  six  hours  or  more. 

Lavater  and  Tranter's  process:  Subject  the  articles  to  a 
boiling  in  potash,  then  to  a  vacuum,  then  to  a  pressure  of  air 
scented  with  some  essence.  They  claim  the  extraction  of  the  sul- 
phur from  the  pores  of  the  rubber  in  the  form  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  and  its  replacement  by  perfumed  air. 

Charles  Hancock's  process:  To  remove  the  odor  of  Gutta- 
percha,  steep  it  in  the  following  solutions : 

(A)  Soda  or  potash,  i  pound ;  water,  10  gallons. 

(B)  Chloride  lime,  i  pound;  water,  10  gallons. 
De  la  Granja's  process : 

Iodine 15  grains. 

Permanganate  of  potassa 20  grains. 

Iodide  of  potassium 60  grains. 

Glycerine 4  ounces. 

Sulphite  of  soda 4  ounces. 

Sulphite  of  lime 4  ounces. 

Sulphite  of  potassa 4  ounces. 

Water \%  to  2  gallons. 

Steep  or  macerate  rubber  in  a  solution  composed  as  above, 
in  a  close  earthern  vessel,  24  hours,  the  solution  being  cold.  Then 
heat  the  solution  gradually  to  boiling  point  and  uncover  the  ves- 
sel until  \  of  weight  of  solution  evaporates.  When  the  solution 
cools  remove  the  rubber. 


PRESERVATIVE   PROCESSES.  205 

PRESERVING  RUBBER  GOODS. 

THE  deterioration  of  vulcanized  rubber  goods  is  often  a  seri- 
ous matter,  where  it  is  necessary  for  some  time  to  keep  them  in 
store.  Wherever  possible,  they  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  dark 
place,  and  away  from  warm  currents  of  dry  air.  It  has  been  ad- 
vised that  such  goods  as  druggists5  sundries  be  stored  in  an  air- 
tight receptacle,  in  the  bottom  of  which  is  placed  a  vessel  contain- 
ing benzine,  which  is  allowed  to  evaporate  slowly.  Kreusler  and 
Bude  in  Der  Techniker  recommend  the  dipping  of  the  articles  in 
a  paraffine  bath,  heated  to  about  212°  F.  This  does  not  injure  the 
color  or  the  appearance,  but  is  said  to  enable  the  goods  to  effectu- 
ally resist  both  light  and  atmospheric  influences.  From  its  well 
known  softening  effect  on  India-rubber,  however,  paraffine  is  like- 
ly to  be  used  with  considerable  care  by  rubber  manufacturers. 
In  the  line  of  mechanical  goods,  Turner  patented  a  process  for 
treating  both  hose  and  tubing  with  carbolic  acid,  either  during  its 
manufacture  or  after  vulcanization  in  order  to  preserve  it.  Tor- 
rey  also  saturated  duck  with  carbolic  acid  before  it  was  made  up 
into  hose. 

Mowbray's  process  for  preserving  rubber  in  valves:  The 
use  of  20  pounds  of  India-rubber,  washed  and  cut  fine,  in  con- 
nection with  5  to  10  pounds  of  naphthaline;  digest  24  to  48  hours, 
at  180°  to  230°  F.  Masticate  in  a  machine  heated  to  212°  F., 
until  it  forms  a  plastic  homogeneous  compound.  If  other  sub- 
stances are  to  be  added,  treat  as  follows : 

1.  Soluble  matters  (sulphur,  antimony,  resins,  etc.)  dissolve 
in  naphthaline,  melted  or  boiling,  and  add  to  above  naphthalized 
caoutchouc  at  temperature  of  240°  F. 

2.  Materials  insoluble  in  naphthaline   (oxides  of  lead  and 
zinc,  chalk,  etc.)  deprive  of  moisture  and  heat  to  212°  F.  and  add 
to  naphthalized  caoutchouc. 

This  compound  can  be  used  for  soft  or  hard  rubber,  accord- 
ing to  the  proportion  of  sulphur  used.  The  object  is  to  preserve 
the  elasticity  of  rubber  and  prolong  its  durability. 

Trueman's  process  for  preserving  India-rubber,  and  fibers 
that  may  be  used  with  it,  employs  the  peroxides  of  manganese  and 
lead  and  the  black  oxide  of  copper,  all  of  which  have  the  property 


206  MISCELLANEOUS  PROCESSES. 

of  decomposing  ozone  in  great  quantity,  and  converting  it  into 
oxygen.  The  inventor  believes  that  ozone  is  the  active  agent  in 
producing  decay,  and,  by  changing  it  into  oxygen,  he  arrests  such 
decay.  In  applying  these  oxides,  he  mixes  them  with  ozocerite 
or  tar. 

Elworthy  patented  a  process  for  storing  rubber  goods  in  a 
receptacle  filled  with  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  marsh  gas,  or  carbonic 
acid  gas.  This  was  recommended  especially  for  rubber  goods  in 
India. 

FASTENING  RUBBER  TO  METALS. 

THE  problem  often  comes  to  rubber  manufacturers  as  to  how 
to  stick  rubber  or  rubber  compounds  to  iron  so  that  they  will  not 
part  from  it,  no  matter  under  what  strain.  This  is  done  success- 
fully by  a  number  of  different  formulas.  Where  the  processes 
are  skilfully  carried  out,  the  rubber  should  adhere  so  firmly  to  the 
iron,  that  it  will  disintegrate  and  give  way  anywhere  else  in  the 
mass,  except  where  its  surface  is  in  contact  with  the  metal.  The 
basis  of  all  these  processes  is  said  to  be  the  chemical  affinity  for 
sulphur  which  is  in  the  rubber  with  the  copper  salts  used  in  the 
compound.  One  formula  for  this  is:  First,  the  grinding  of  the 
iron,  finishing  it  with  a  file,  and  dipping  it  in  strong  lye  to  re- 
move all  grease,  and  afterward  in  muriatic  acid  or  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  heated  in  water.  The  metal  is  cemented  before  the 
rubber  is  applied. 

The  process  patented  by  Garrity  and  Avery,  is  as  follows: 
Nitric  acid  (41°  Baume),  10  gallons;  muriatic  acid  (22°  Baume), 
10  gallons;  mix  and  add  pure  tin,  finely  divided,  10  pounds. 

Immerse  the  iron  for  8  seconds,  remove  and  dip  into  weak 
solution  sulphuric  acid,  then  wipe  with  a  woolen  cloth.  Then 
apply  with  brush  or  otherwise,  the  following  compound:  Rubber 
cement,  J\  gallons;  litharge,  6  pounds;  and  sulphur,  3  pounds. 
Add  vulcanizable  rubber  compound  at  once,  and  vulcanize. 

Hairs  process :  Water,  100  quarts ;  caustic  potash,  10  pounds ; 
cyanide  of  potash,  2  pounds;  sulphate  of  copper,  2  pounds;  sul- 
phate of  zinc,  2  pounds.  The  pickle  and  bath  are  made  of  water 
and  about  10  per  cent,  sulphuric  acid,  the  tub  being  lined  with 
brass  plate. 


THE   USE  OF  GASES.  207 

Adams's  process:  A  weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  is 
made — say  2  or  3  ounces  of  the  crystalized  salt  to  the  gallon — 
and  this  solution  may  be  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid — say 
about  £  gill  of  strong  acid  to  the  gallon.  For  a  fine  film  for 
"dipping"  articles  of  iron,  steel,  or  tin,  to  which  the  rubber  com- 
pound is  to  be  applied,  if  the  metal  is  copper,  it  should  first  be 
coated  with  tin,  nickel,  or  iron. 

The  Shellac  process  calls  for  a  cement  made  of  shellac  steeped 
in  ten  times  its  weight  of  concentrated  ammonia,  the  solution 
being  allowed  to  stand  three  or  four  weeks.  This  solution  is 
painted  on  the  iron,  allowed  to  dry,  and  the  rubber  vulcanized 
upon  it. 

THE  USE  OF  GASES. 

BEFORE  India-rubber  reached  its  present  value  in  the  arts, 
and  before  coal  gas  was  generally  known  as  an  illuminant,  Mol- 
lerat  obtained  oil  of  caoutchouc  by  distillation  and  made  a  fine 
quality  of  illuminating  gas  from  it.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the 
process  is  not  practised  to-day. 

Pellen  rendered  India-rubber  impervious  to  gas  by  coating 
it  with  collodion  mixed  with  a  very  small  quantity  of  castor  oil 
or  with  a  varnish  composed  (i)  of  32  per  cent,  of  gum  arabic, 
8  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  60  per  cent,  of  water,  or  (2)  made  from 
28  per  cent,  of  dextrin,  60  per  cent,  of  water,  and  12  per  cent,  of 
gelatine. 

Bousfield  rendered  vulcanized  India-rubber  impermeable  to 
glas  by  applying  linseed  oil  to  it  in  the  form  of  a  varnish,  the 
articles  being  heated. 

Parkes  suspended  articles  to  be  vulcanized  in  a  dry  heater  and 
passed  the  following  gases  into  the  chamber  as  a  means  of  vul- 
canization: Sulphurous  acid  gas,  chlorine,  nitrous  acid,  or  the 
vapors  of  bromine  or  iodine. 

Charles  Hancock  cured  rubber  by  the  action  of  vapors  pro- 
duced by  dissolving  zinc,  copper,  or  mercury  in  nitric  acid.  The 
action  of  these  vapors  being  so  solvent,  only  one  or  two  moments 
were  given,  and  the  surfaces  then  washed  in  an  alkaline  solution. 

Nickels  passed  sulphur  fumes  and  hydrogen  into  the  gum 
while  in  a  masticator,  curing  afterward  by  heat. 


208  MISCELLANEOUS  PROCESSES. 

Johnson  prepared  carburet  of  hydrogen  from  oil  of  tar  as  a 
solvent  for  Gutta-percha.  In  order  to  overcome  the  smell  of  the 
solvent,  he  added  a  little  alcohol  in  which  was  essence  of  lavender. 

Hughes  made  an  artificial  rubber  from  gelatine,  resin,  oil,  and 
tannin,  improving  the  compound  by  exposing  the  compound  to 
the  action  of  hydrogen,  sulphurous  gas,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
nitrous  gas,  or  ammonia. 

Brooman  treated  vulcanized  waste  rubber  with  vapors  of  tur- 
pentine in  his  reclaiming  process. 

Lake  bleached  India-rubber  in  a  stream  of  ammonia  gas  or 
chloride  of  ammonia,  afterwards  thoroughly  washing  the  gum  in 
hot  water. 

A  great  many  rubber  goods — that  is,  thin  sheet  goods — are 
cured  by  what  is  known  as  the  vapor  process.  This  is  done  in 
many  cases  by  hanging  the  goods  in  an  air-tight  chamber,  like  a 
dry  heater,  and  passing  the  vapor,  which  is  either  that  of  chloride 
of  sulphur  alone,  or  chloride  of  sulphur  mixed  with  nitric  acid, 
into  the  curing  room.  Small  articles  are  often  put  in  a  tumbling 
barrel  made  of  wire,  which  revolves  slowly  in  the  vulcanizing 
room,  thus  giving  the  vapor  a  chance  to  do  its  work  thoroughly. 
The  rubber  surfaces  are  of  course  dusted  first,  to  keep  them  from 
adhering.  Proofed  cloth  is  cured  in  vapor  by  passing  the  rubber 
surface  over  troughs  in  which  this  reagent  is  slowly  evaporating. 

The  vapors  of  ozocerite  are  also  used  in  rendering  cloth  wa- 
ter-repellent. 

A  mixture  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen  gas  is  used  for  filling 
small  India-rubber  balloons.  A  fuse  is  attached  to  which  a  spark 
is  applied  before  it  is  let  off.  After  a  time  this  spark  reaches  the 
gas,  and  the  balloon  explodes. 

Vulcanized  India-rubber,  whether  compounded  or  pure,  is 
permeable  by  gas.  In  making  flexible  gas  tubing,  therefore,  it 
must  be  coated  or  in  some  way  protected  in  order  to  make  it  gas 
tight.  The  common  way  of  accomplishing  this  is  to  cover  the 
rubber  tube  with  an  outer  tube  made  of  glue,  glycerine,  and  bi- 
chromate of  potash,  this  covering  being  protected  in  turn  by  a 
woven  fabric.  Another  plan  for  accomplishing  the  same  result 
is  to  have  an  outer  and  inner  tube  of  India-rubber,  between  the 
two  being  vulcanized  a  sheet  of  tin-foil. 


METALS  AND   RUBBER.  209 

ACTION  OF  METALS  ON  RUBBER. 

THE  action  of  various  metals  on  India-rubber  has  always  in- 
terested rubber  manufacturers.  In  the  memoirs  and  proceedings 
of  the  Manchester  (England)  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society, 
1890-91,  William  Thomson,  F.  R.  S.,  and  Frederick  Lewis  pub- 
lished an  exceedingly  interesting  paper  on  this  subject.  They 
covered  almost  all  of  the  metals  that  are  likely  in  any  way  to  come 
in  contact  with  rubber  surfaces,  and  proved  what  has  long  been 
acknowledged  by  rubber  manufacturers,  that  the  action  of  copper 
is  most  harmful.  The  metals  that  have  no  action  at  all  on  rubber 
are  gold,  silver,  bismuth,  antimony,  arsenic,  tin,  chromium,  iron, 
nickel,  cobalt,  zinc,  and  cadmium.  Those  that  act  only  in  a  slight 
degree  on  rubber  are  lead,  aluminum,  palladium,  and  platinum. 

Of  the  salts  of  metals  that  are  very  destructive,  copper  stands 
first,  manganese  oxides  and  nitrate  of  silver,  being,  however,  al- 
most as  bad.  Several  other  nitrates  have  also  an  injurious  effect, 
although  not  as  much  so  as  those  just  mentioned.  They  are  the 
nitrates  of  ammonia,  uranium,  sodium,  and  iron. 

According  to  N.  Foden,  a  well-known  English  expert,  proof- 
ed goods  in  browns  have  caused  him  more  trouble  by  deterioration 
than  any  other  colors — more  than  black,  even — and  it  is  to  be 
said  right  here  that  blacks  as  a  rule  are  viewed  with  distrust  by 
manufacturers,  because  it  is  believed  generally  that  copper  salts 
are  used  in  the  dyeing.  Mr.  Foden  instances  the  time  when  brown 
tweeds  were  used  largely,  and  when  most  manufacturers  experi- 
enced a  great  deal  of  trouble  with  them,  as  the  browns  showed 
early  signs  of  decay,  while  the  grays  remained  soft  and  flexible. 
Mr.  Foden  suggests  that,  as  certain  dyers  use  lime,  which  is 
cheaper  than  logwood,  this  may  act  destructively  upon  the  rubber. 

ARTIFICIAL  RUBBER  MILK. 

WHEN  rubber  in  solution  of  almost  any  of  the  ordinary  sol- 
vents is  mixed  with  a  moderately  large  quantity  of  methylated 
spirit,  it  is  precipitated  and  forms  later  a  sticky,  whitish  mass 
from  which  the  resins  and  coloring  matter  have  been  taken  by  the 
spirit.  Instead  of  this  process,  Lascelles- Scott  advises  the  fol- 
lowing: Take  a  10  or  15  per  cent,  solution  of  fine  Para  rubber  in 
benzine  or  chloroform  with  a  little  strong  alcohol,  but  not  enough 
to  precipitate  the  rubber.  If  a  considerable  volume  of  tepid  water 


^^^—  —        "^^^^^-^^ 
f^  OF  THE       ^^V 

I  UNIVERSITY! 
Vo^ .  J 


210  MISCELLANEOUS  PROCESSES. 

be  then  quickly  stirred  into  the  solution,  the  rubber  slowly  sepa- 
rates from  its  solvent.  If  to  this  is  added  a  little  resin-potassa 
soap,  with  a  little  liquor  ammonia,  the  emulsion  is  very  similar 
to  rubber  milk.  The  distinguished  author  suggests  the  use  of 
potassa  soap  made  of  the  native  rubber  resin  as  the  best  emulsi- 
fying compound  for  such  a  purpose. 

In  writing  on  the  preservation  of  genuine  rubber  milk,  he 
also  condemns  the  use  of  creosote,  for,  although  it  prevents  fer- 
mentation, it  does  not  hinder  the  gum  from  separating.  He  ad- 
vises the  use  of  ammonia  and  if  it  is  to  be  kept  through  hot  wea- 
ther, the  addition  of  a  fragment  of  camphor  or  naphthaline  or  a 
few  drops  of  santal-wood  oil. 


SHRINKAGE  OF  RUBBER.  21 1 

SHRINKAGE   OF   RUBBER. 

THE  following  table  shows  the  average  rate  of  shrinkage  in 
the  various  leading  grades  of  India-rubber,  and  also  the  widest 
range  of  shrinkage  noted  in  the  practice  of  some  extensive  manu- 
facturers. The  figures  express  percentages  in  weight : 

Average.  Range. 

Para  sorts : 

Fine 16  to  18  15  to  20 

Medium 17  to  19  16  to  22 

Coarse. 22  to  28  18  to  35 

Mangabeira 25  to  30  20  to  35 

Caucho 26  to  34  20  to  40 

Centrals 26  to  32  20  to  40 

Africans : 

Tongues 19  to  24  18  to  25 

Flakes 28  to  33  25  to  35 

Thimbles 22  to  28  15  to  35 

Accra  sorts 24  to  32  20  to  40 

Congo  sorts 19  to  24  18  to  35 

Benguella  sorts 16  to  20  16  to  20 

Mozambique  sorts 17  to  28  TO  to  35 

Madagascar  sorts 30  to  40  25  to  55 

Assam 23  to  31  8  to  45 

Borneo 33  to  38  30  to  45 

Mr.  T.  Bolas,  in  his  "Cantor  lectures"  on  India-rubber,  in 
1880,  gave  the  following  estimates  of  shrinkage  of  these  leading 
grades : 

Para 15  per  cent. 

Para  negroheads 25 

Ceara 28 

Guayaquil 40 

Borneo 25 

African  ball 25 

African  tongues 35 

African  niggers 25 

Madagascar 25 

PARA    RUBBERS. 

The  next  table  indicates  in  detail  the  percentage  of  shrink- 
ages in  the  various  grades  of  Para  rubber ,  also  determined  by  the 
practice  of  American  manufacturers : 

Fine.  Medium.  Coarse. 

Bolivian 15  to  17  16  to  18  20  to  25 

Mollendo 15  to  17  16  to  18  

Madeira 15  to  18  16  to  19  20  to  25 

Manaos -    16  to  17  17  to  18  18  to  22 


212  SHRINKAGE  OF  RUBBER. 


Upriver                 .    .    . 

16  to  18 

17  to  19 

18  to  25 

Matto  Grosso     

16  to  18 

17  to  19 

20   tO   28 

Angostura  
Caviana  , 

16  to  18 

.  .  .  .         16  to  18 

17  to  19 
18  to  20 

25  to  30 
25  to  30 

Itaituba  
Islands              .   .  . 

.  .  .  .         17  to  18 
18  to  20 

18  to  19 
18  to  22 

20   tO    25 

25  to  35 

Cameta.  . 

30  to  35 

The  shrinkage  of  Mangabeira  (Pernambuco)  thin  sheet  is 
about  25  'to  30  per  cent.;  thick  sheet,  30  to  35;  ball,  20  to  25. 
Caucho  (Peruvian)  slab,  30  to  40;  sheet,  30  to  35;  strip,  25  to 
35 ;  ball,  20  to  25. 

The  better  grades  of  Centrals  shrink  from  25  to  30  per  cent. ; 
other  grades,  generally  from  30  to  40. 

AFRICANS. 

The  Gold  Coast  sorts  (including  Accra,  Cape  Coast,  Saltpond, 
Addah,  Quittah,  and  Axim)  range  about  as  follows :  Buttons  or 
biscuit,  20  to  30 ;  flake,  30  to  35 ;  lump,  30  to  40 ;  niggers,  20  to  35. 

Cameroon  ball,  18  to  25 ;  clusters,  18  to  28. 

Lagos  buttons,  25  to  35;  lump,  30  to  40;  strip,  25  to  35. 

Congo  buttons,  25  to  30;  ball  No.  I,  20  to  25;  ball  No.  2, 
25  to  35 ;  Upper  Congo  ball  and  strips,  20  to  25 ;  red  ball,  18  to 
22 ;  Equateur  small  ball,  16  to  20 ;  mixed  ball,  18  to  22 ;  Lopori 
small  ball,  16  to  22 ;  Kassai  black  twist,  18  to  22 ;  red  twist,  20  to 
25  ;  ball,  20  to  25. 

Benguella  (and  Loanda)  sausage,  16  to  20;  niggers,  18  to  20. 

Mozambique  (including  Lamu)  ball  No.  i,  10  to  15;  ball 
No.  2,  15  to  25 ;  ball  No.  3,  25  to  35 ;  sausage,  20  to  35. 

Madagascar  pinky,  30  to  35;  Majunga,  30  to  35;  black,  30 
to  40 ;  niggers,  30  to  40. 

EAST    INDIAN. 

Assam  No.  i,  10  to  15 ;  No.  2,  20  to  30;  No.  3,  30  to  35. 
Penaing,  No.  i,  and  Java  No.  i,  10  to  15  per  cent.;  other 
numbers  same  shrinkage  as  Assam. 

E.  Chapel  gives  this  table  of  percentages  of  shrinkage : 

Para,  fine 12     '    Ceara 28 

Para,  coarse 25        African  ball 28 

Loando 17        Madagascar 28 

Colombia 20        Assam 28 

Java 22        Gaboon 35 

Gambia 24        Borneo 35 


SHRINKAGE  OF  RUBBER.  213 

TO  FIGURE  SHRINKAGE  IN  CRUDE  RUBBER. 

It  is  strange  that  there  should  be  a  divergence  of  opinion 
and  method  in  arriving  at  the  net  cost  of  rubber  after  washing, 
sheeting,  and  drying  it,  yet  such  is  the  case.  To  assist  those  who 
have  not  studied  this  question,  the  right  and  the  wrong  way  of 
figuring  on  shrinkage  is  given  here.  Take  for  instance  an  ave- 
rage-priced rubber: 

Example  A. 

100  Ibs.  rubber  at  $0.50  =  $50.00 
20  Ibs.  shrinkage  =  20  per  cent.,  or  i-5th. 


80  Ibs,  net  cost  $50.00,  as  above. 

80)  50.00  (62.50 
48  o 

200 
160 

400 
400 


Some  persons,  however,  figure  in  this  way: 

Example  B. 
100  Ibs.  at  $0.50  Ib. 
Shrinkage  20  per  cent.  =  i-5th. 
$0.50  +  i-5 th  (10  cents)  =  60  cents. 

Example  A. — Correct  method — net  cost 62.50 

Example  B. — Incorrect  method — net  cost 60.00 

Difference 2.50 

This  is  a  difference  of  4  per  cent.,  which,  if  it  occurs  in  manu- 
facturing a  large  amount  of  goods  where  rubber  is  the  greater 
part  of  the  compound,  would  make  quite  a  difference  in  the  profit. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  RUBBER. 

THE  following  records  of  the  specific  gravities  of  different 
samples  of  India-rubber  have  been  collected: 

Best  Para,  taken  in  dilute  alcohol  (Ure) 0.941567 

Best  Assam,  taken  in  dilute  alcohol  (Ure) 0.942972 

Best  Singapore,  taken  in  dilute  alcohol  (Ure) 0.936650 

Best  Penang,  taken  in  dilute  alcohol  (Ure) 0.919178 

Caoutchouc  (Julian) 0.920000 

Crude  caoutchouc  of  India  (Adriani) 0.966800 


214  SHRINKAGE  OF  RUBBER. 

Black  caoutchouc  (Adrian!) 0.945200 

Prepared  from  juice  in  pure  state  (Faraday) 0.925000 

Determined  by  E.  Soubeiran 0.935500 

Determined  by  Payen 0.925000 

H.  L.  Terry,  F.  I.  C,  gives  the  specific  gravity  of  Para  rub- 
ber and  refers  to  Faraday's  figures  as  being  most  correct. 
Faraday's  general  analysis  of  the  sap  of  the  Hevea  is : 

Caoutchouc 30.70 

Albuminous  extractive  and  saline  matter 12.93 

Water 56.3? 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  sap  quoted  was  1.012. 
The  crude  rubber  itself  is  made  up  of  the  following  general 
composition:  Carbon,  87.5;  hydrogen,  12.5. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

PHYSICAL  TESTS  AND  METHODS  OF  ANALYSIS  OF  VULCANIZED  INDIA- 
RUBBER. 

IT  has  long  been  the  boast  of  expert  rubber  superintendents 
and  manufacturers  that  they  found  little  trouble  in  matching  com- 
pounds. As  a  matter  of  fact,  some  of  them  are  marvelously  ex- 
pert. Given  a  small  sample  of  vulcanized  rubber  in  a  familiar  line, 
with  a  knowledge  of  the  price  at  which  it  must  be  produced,  they 
are  able  in  a  majority  of  instances,  by  their  knowledge  of  rubber 
and  of  compounding  ingredients,  to  get  a  result  that  is  apparently 
similar,  and  without  much  experimenting. 

In  certain  instances,  however,  they  fail,  principally  where  a 
new  product  is  brought  in  for  matching,  to  which  is  attached  an 
extraordinarily  low  price.  The  usual  refuge  in  such  a  case  for- 
merly was  the  assertion  that  the  manufacturer  was  losing  money 
on  that  particular  line  of  goods.  But  this  has  been  so  often  dis- 
proved, and  the  sample  found  to  be  both  an  original  and  better 
compound,  that  this  excuse  is  not  often  heard  nowadays. 

The  factory  expert  gaged  his  sample,  no  matter  how  expert 
he  might  be,  by  purely  physical  rules.  The  smell  told  him  what 
kind  of  rubber  was  used,  whether  Para  or  African,  and  usually 
whether  reclaimed  rubber  was  present.  The  strength  and  the 
weight  of  the  sample  gave  him  an  indication  as  to  the  amount 
of  adulteration.  The  color  also  had  its  suggestions  as  to  material 
contained  in  it,  but  the  knowledge  thus  shown  often  was  very  far 
from  being  exact. 

Nor  was  the  general  result  very  much  better  when  informa- 
tion was  purchased  from  employes,  or  points  secured  through 
quizzing  the  supply  men.  The  best  course  for  the  rubber  super- 
intendent to  pursue,  therefore,  is  to  put  his  knowledge  up  against 
that  of  the  expert  chemist,  when  the  two,  working  together,  can 
usually  match  better  than  the  original.  It  is  better,  if  the  chemist 
is  familiar  with  the  practical  manipulation  of  rubber,  for  the  un- 
familiar chemist  has  in  many  cases  brought  science  into  consider- 
able disrepute  in  the  factory. 

Certain  rubber  compounds,  in  spite  of  the  most  careful  analy- 

215 


216  ANALYSES  OF  RUBBER. 

sis  by  expert  chemists,  have  remained,  and  probably  will  remain, 
profound  secrets.  For  ordinary  work,  however,  there  ought  to 
be  no  trouble  in  getting  a  fair  analysis.  The  following  descrip- 
tions of  processes  employed  in  the  analysis  of  vulcanized  rubber 
are  given  chiefly  that  the  rubber  superintendent  who  views  chem- 
istry as  a  dark  and  deep  mystery  may  have  some  knowledge  of 
what  the  chemist  is  about  when  he  seeks  his  assistance.  Before 
beginning  on  chemical  analysis  a  few  words  more  concerning 
physical  tests  may  not  be  amiss. 

In  the  case  of  many  kinds  of  goods  there  is  a  great  variety 
of  appliances  that  form  really  valuable  tests  as  to  their  durability, 
tensile  strength,  wearing  quality,  etc.  As  a  rule,  these  aim  to 
reproduce  the  work  that  the  vulcanized  article  is  obliged  to  en- 
dure in  actual  service.  In  rubber  boots  and  shoes,  for  example, 
a  machine  is  employed  which  bends  the  shoe  exactly  as  it  is  bent 
when  the  wearer  is  walking,  and  at  the  same  time  gives  a  friction 
motion  on  the  sole.  This  is  run  at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  so  that  a 
week's  wear  on  a  machine  like  this  would  correspond  to  a  month 
of  service  in  actual  use. 

A  machine  is  also  used  for  testing  air-brake  hose  which  coun- 
terfeits the  swing  and  kinking  motion  that  the  hose  gets  in  actual 
service.  This  is  run  at  a  very  high  rate  of  speed,  and  the  hose 
which  stands  this  sort  of  usage  longest  is  supposed  to  be  adapted 
to  endure  the  longest  time  in  actual  use. 

Tires,  both  pneumatic  and  solid,  are  tested  by  being  put  on  a 
wheel  rim  and  run  what  is  equivalent  to  hundreds  and  thousands 
of  miles  over  roughened  surfaces  upon  which  they  are  pressed  by 
a  lever  carrying  heavy  weight.  These  mechanical  contrivances 
are  valuable  in  showing  the  severe  usage  that  rubber  will  often 
stand,  but  none  of  them  are  exact  parallels  to  absolute  service, 
for  as  a  rule  they  are  more  severe,  particularly  in  the  intense  heat- 
ing that  may  come  to  the  rubber  from  high  speeds  and  great  fric- 
tion. 

Manufacturers  and  purchasers  of  rubber  goods  have  also 
many  simple  and  excellent  tests  for  approximating  the  value  of 
the  rubber.  In  belt  and  hose  covers  and  tubes,  a  bit  of  the  rubber 
is  cut  from  the  fabric  and  stretched  to  show  its  tensile  strength. 
The  fabric  is  also  pulled  apart,  and  the  integrity  of  the  friction 


TESTS  OF  VULCANIZED  RUBBER. 


217 


proved  by  the  way  it  resists  such  separation.  Rubber  springs 
sometimes  have  been  placed  under  a  steam  hammer  which  was 
allowed  to  drop  upon  them,  the  results  being  noted  and  that  com- 
pound standing  up  longest  being  considered  the  best. 

An  English  manufacturer  following  out  this  test,  got  some 
interesting,  if  not  valuable,  results.  He  took  a  piece  of  vulcanized 
India-rubber  i^  inches  thick  and  with  2  inches  area,  and  placed  it 
under  a  steam  hammer  of  five  tons,  which  first  rested  upon  the 
rubber  without  effect.  The  hammer  was  then  raised  two  feet  and 
dropped  upon  it  without  injury;  then  lifted  four  feet,  when  the 
cake  was  torn,  but  none  of  its  elasticity  was  destroyed.  More  se- 
vere trials  were  then  made.  A  block  of  vulcanized  Inlia-rubber 
was  placed  between  two  cannon  balls,  with  the  whole  power  of 
the  heaviest  steam  hammer  employed;  the  iron  spheres  split  the 
block,  but  the  elasticity  of  the  rubber  still  remained. 

The  ordnance  department  of  the  United  States  government 
some  years  ago  inaugurated  some  very  interesting  tests  of  vul- 
canized rubber  at  the  arsenal  at  Watertown,  Mass.,  the  results 
of  which  are  appended : 


No.  1. 


Applied  Loads. 

Mean  Length. 

Compression. 

Compression  Sets. 

Middle  Diameter. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

O 

5-72 

6vio 

1,000 

5.32 

.40 

0. 

6.38 

2,000 

4.84 

.88 

.10 

6.72 

.   3,ooo 

4-47 

1.25 

.18 

7.06 

4,000 

4-03 

1.69 

.29 

7.48 

5,000 

3-70 

2.  02 

•33 

7.79 

6,000 

3-40 

2.32 

•37 

8.12 

7,000 

3-14 

,    2.58 

.42 

8.44 

8,000 

2.96 

2.76 

•39* 

8.73 

9,000 

2.80 

2.92 

•  51 

8.92 

10,000 

2.68 

3-04 

•  58 

9.11 

11,000 

-2.60 

3-12 

•  52* 

9.24 

12,000 

2.50 

3.22 

.60 

9.42 

13,000 

2-45 

3-27 

•67 

9-55 

14,000 

2.36 

3.36 

•73 

9.68 

15,000 

2.31 

3-41 

•  74 

9-77 

0 

5-15 

6.71 

*Before  these  sets  were  taken  the   load  on  the  rubber  was  reduced  to  500  pounds,  then 
increased  to  1,000  pounds,  and  the  sets  then  measured. 


218 


ANALYSES  OF  RUBBER. 


The  second  test  was  of  new  rubber  gun-carriage  springs,  in 
which  the  compression  sets  were  determined  under  the  initial  load, 
the  end  diameters  approximate  under  load.  The  length  of  the 
rubber  spring  was  6.03  inches ;  the  diameter  6.03  inches ;  the  dia- 
meter of  core  1.04  inches;  the  sectional  area  27.71  square  inches; 
and  the  weight  n  pounds: 


No.  2. 


Applied 
Loads. 

Length. 

Compres- 
sion. 

Compres- 
sion Sets. 

Diameters. 

Middle 
Diam.  Under 
Initial  Load. 

End. 

Middle. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

500 

5-87 

0. 

0. 

6.03 

6.12 

6.12 

I,  OCX) 

5-70 

.17 

.02 

6.03 

6.24 

'6.15 

1,500 

5-51 

.36 

•03 

6.03 

6-35 

6.15 

2,000 

5-34 

•  53 

.06 

6.03 

6.48 

6.18 

2,500 

5-13 

•  74 

.07 

6.03 

6.64 

6.18 

3,000 

5.00 

.87 

.07 

6.10 

6.76 

6.18 

3,500 

4.81 

.06 

.09 

6.15 

6.87 

6.18 

4,000 

4-65 

.22 

.08 

6.16 

7.00 

6.18 

4,5oo 

4-50 

•  37 

.08 

6.18 

7-15 

6.19 

5,ooo 

4-35 

•  52 

.02 

6.29 

7.26 

6.19 

5,500 

4.20 

.67 

.12 

6.38 

7.41 

6.19 

6,000 

4.06 

.81 

.19 

6-43 

7-55 

6.19 

6,500 

3-95 

.92 

•03 

6.50 

7.66 

6.21 

7,000 

3.83 

2.04 

•15 

6.64 

7-77 

6.21 

7,500 

3-70 

2.17 

•15 

6.70 

7.91 

6.22 

8,000 

3.62 

2.25 

•15 

6.78 

8.02 

6.22 

8,500 

3-52 

2.35 

.16 

6.89 

8.13 

6.22 

9,000 

3-43 

2.44 

.16 

6.96 

8.24 

6.23 

9,5oo 

3-35 

2.52 

•17 

7.06 

8-34 

6.24 

10,000 

3-25 

2.62 

•17 

7-25 

8.46 

6.25 

The  spring  was  then  removed  from  the  testing-machine, 
measured,  and  its  length  was  5.90  inches;  middle  diameter  6.08 
inches.  After  it  had  rested  20  minutes  the  length  was  6  inches, 
and  the  middle  diameter  6.06  inches.  It  was  then  placed  again  in 
the  testing  machine  and  the  figures  on  the  following  page  taken . 

When  removed  its  measurements  were:  Length  5.86  inches; 
middle  diameter  6.24  inches;  end  diameter  5.90  inches;  the  ends 
were  concave,  V.  sine  .06  and  .08  inches.  After  six  hours  rest  it 
recovered  in  length  to  5.96  inches. 


TESTS  OF  VULCANIZED  RUBBER. 


219 


NO.  3. 


« 

Length. 

Compres- 
sion. 

Compres- 
sion Sets. 

Diameter. 

Middle 
Piam.  Under 
Initial  Load. 

Ends. 

Middle. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

500 

5.84 

•03  •» 

•  03 

6.01 

6.15 

6.15 

6,000 

4.00 

1.87   I 

6-55 

7.63 

.... 

10,000 

3-29 

2.58 

7-25 

8.40 

.... 

10,500 

3.21 

2.66 

7-35 

8.48 

11,000 

3.16 

2.71 

7-39 

8-54 

11,500 

3." 

2.76 

7.46 

8.60 

12,000 

3.06 

2.81 

•  17 

7-55 

8.67 

6.26 

13,000 

2-94 

2.93 

7-74 

8.86 

.... 

14,000 

2.86 

3.01 

7.86 

8.97 

.... 

15,000 

2.80 

3.07 

.22 

7-94 

9.04 

6.30 

16,000 

2.71 

3.16 

8.10 

9.20 

.... 

17,000 

2.65 

3-22 

8.20 

9.28 

.... 

18,000 

2.61 

3.26 

8.27 

9-35 

.... 

19,000 

2.56 

3-31 

8.36 

9.42 

.... 

20,000 

2.53 

3-34 

•30 

8-43 

9-47 

6.37 

In  the  next  test  the  length  of  the  spring  was  6.06  inches; 
diameter,  5.97  inches;  diameter  of  core  1.06  inches;  sectional  area 
27.11  square  inches;  weight,  n  pounds. 


NO.  4. 


Applied 
Loads. 

Length. 

Compres- 
sion. 

Compres- 
sion Sets. 

Diameter. 

Middle 
Diam.  Under 
Initial  Load. 

End. 

Middle. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inche-s. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

500 

5.90 

o. 

0. 

5.97 

6.07 

6.07 

1,000 

5-75 

•  15 

.02 

5-97 

6.16 

6.07 

1,500 

5-59 

•3i 

.02 

5-97 

6.27 

6.08 

2,000 

5-41 

.49 

.06 

5.98 

6.38 

6.10 

2,500 

5.25 

.65 

•05 

6.O2 

6.48 

6.10 

3,000 

5-05 

.85 

.09 

6.05 

6.62 

6.12 

3,500 

4.90 

I.OO 

.08 

6.08 

6.73 

6.ii 

4,000 

4.76 

1.14 

.10 

6.14 

6.88 

6.12 

4,5oo 

4.61 

1.29 

.10 

6.20 

7.00 

6.12 

5,ooo 

4-47 

1-43 

.11 

6.25 

7.11 

6.12 

5,5oo 

4-33 

1-57 

.11 

6.31 

7.24 

6.14 

6,000 

4.21 

1.69 

.12 

6.37 

7.32 

6.15 

The  measurements  when  removed  from  the  machine  were: 
Length,  5.98  inches;  middle  diameter  6  inches;  end  diameter  5.97 
inches.  After  it  had  rested  15  hours,  it  measured  length  6.02  in- 


22O 


ANALYSES  OF  RUBBER. 


dies;  middle  diameter  6  inches;  end  diameter  5.96  inches.    It  was 
then  placed  again  in  the  machine  and  tests  were  resumed. 


No.  5. 


Applied 
Loads. 

Length. 

Compres- 
sion. 

Compres- 
sion Sets. 

Diameter. 

Middle 
Diam.  Under 
Initial  Load. 

End. 

Middle. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches, 

Inches. 

500 

5-90 

0. 

. 

5-97 

6.08 

6.08 

6,000 

4.27 

1.63 

. 

6-35 

7.30 

6,500 

4.12 

1.78 

.08 

6.38 

7.41 

6.  1  1 

7,000 

4.00 

1.90 

.09 

6.50 

7.55 

6.12 

7,500 

3-90 

2.OO 

.10 

6.57 

7.62 

6.14 

8,000 

3.82 

2.08 

.10 

6.65 

7.73 

6.12 

8,500 

3-72 

2.18 

.11 

6-75 

7.82 

6.14 

9,000 

3.62 

2.28 

.14 

6.84 

7.93 

6.16 

9,5oo 

3-52 

2.38 

.14 

6-93 

8.03 

6.17 

10,000 

3-45 

2.45 

.16 

7.00 

8.  n 

6.17 

The  spring  was  then  removed  from  the  testing  machine  and 
its  measurements  were:  Length,  5.92  inches;  middle  diameter, 
6.09  inches.  Measurements  after  the  spring  had  rested  one  hour 
showed:  Length,  5.98  inches;  middle  diameter,  6.06  inches;  end 
diameter,  5.95  inches.  The  spring  was  again  placed  in  the  ma- 
chine and  tests  resumed. 


No.  6. 


Applied 
Loads. 

Length. 

Compres- 
sion. 

Compres- 
sion Sets. 

Diameter.               I       Middle 

End. 

uiam.  under 
Middle,      j  Initial  Load. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Inch. 

Inches. 

Inches.    \    Inches. 

500 

5.88 

.07 

.07 

5-97 

6.13              6.13 

6,000 

4.09 

1.81 

6.41 

7-47 

10,000 

3.46 

2.44 

7.00 

8.12 

10,500 

3.38 

2.52 

7.09 

8.22                   

11,000 

3-34 

2.56 

7-15 

8.27 

11,500 

3-27 

2.63 

7.21 

8.36 

12,000 

3-17 

2-73 

.22 

7.26 

8.40                   6.22 

13,000 

3.10 

2.80 

7.46 

8.57 

14,000 

3.02 

2.88 

7-51 

8.67 

15,000 

2.90 

3.00 

.26 

7.66 

8.70              6.27 

16,000 

2.84 

3.06 

7.84 

8.95 

17,000 

2-79 

3." 

7.90 

9.02              .... 

18,000 

2-75 

3-15 

7.97 

9.06 

19,000 

2.70 

3.20 

8.05 

9-13 

20,000 

2.68 

3.22 

•37 

8.  ii 

9.19              6.36 

1 

TESTS  OF  VULCANIZED  RUBBER. 


221 


[THE  PRECEDING  TABLE  CONTINUED.] 


Applied  Loads. 

Length. 

Compres- 
sion. 

Applied  Loads. 

Length. 

Compres- 
sion. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

Inches. 

Inches. 

I,OOO 

5-43 

•47 

11,000 

3-05 

2.85 

2,OOO 

5.10 

.80 

12,000 

2.98 

2.82 

3,OOO 

4-75 

1.  15 

13,000 

2.91 

2.99 

4,OOO 

4-43 

1.47 

14,000 

2.85 

3-05 

5,000 

4.10 

i.  80 

15,000 

2.81 

3-09 

6,000 

3.80 

2.10 

16,000 

2.78 

3.12 

7,000 

3-58 

2.32 

17,000 

2.74 

3-16 

8,000 

3-38 

2.52 

18,000 

2.70 

3.20 

9,000 

3-25 

2.65 

19,000 

2.67 

3-23 

10,000 

3-15 

2.75 

20,000 

2.63 

3-27 

Time  for  loading  three  minutes.  The  spring  was  then  re- 
moved from  the  testing  machine  and  its  measurements  showed: 
Length,  5.81  inches;  middle  diameter,  6.25  inches;  end  diameter, 
5.87  inches;  ends  concave,  V.  sine,  .08  and  .10  inch.  It  recovered 
in  length  to  5.93  inches  after  four  hours'  rest. 

The  French  navy  also  inaugurated  a  series  of  tests  for  rub- 
ber belting  which  are  of  interest.  The  first  test  related  to  elas- 
ticity. Samples  from  the  cover  were  first  put  into  a  steam  vul- 
canizer  for  48  hours,  under  a  pressure  of  5  atmospheres,  which 
they  should  stand  without  losing  their  elasticity.  The  samples  are 
then  placed  under  a  pressure  of  85.5  pounds  per  square  inch  on 
the  grating  of  a  valve  box,  and  given  strokes  at  the  rate  of  100 
per  minute.  They  were  expected  to  stand  9,100  strokes,  while 
samples  not  tested  by  the  steam  should  stand  17,100  strokes. 
Strips  from  the  cover  that  had  received  the  steam  treatment,  6-10 
of  an  inch  square  on  cross  section,  and  8  inches  long,  fastened 
at  each  end  and  elongated  3.9  inches,  were  not  expected  to  break 
when  stretched  to  8  inches  more,  this  being  repeated  22  times  a 
minute  for  24  hours.  Strips  that  had  not  been  treated  to  the  steam 
bath,  should  resist  the  same  treatment  for  100  hours.  These  tests 
of  course  applied  to  high  grade  compounds  only. 

The  analysis  of  vulcanized  India-rubber  should  give  the  fol- 
lowing information: 

Amount  of  India-rubber, 
Amount  of  India-rubber  resins, 
Amount  of  substitutes, 


222  ANALYSES  OF  RUBBER. 

Amount  of  free,   fatty  resin,    and   mineral   oils,    resin,   paraffine,  and 
bituminous  bodies, 

Amount  of  sulphur  of  vulcanization, 
Amount  of  sulphur  and  chlorine  in  substitute, 
Amount  of  free  sulphur, 
Amount  of  mineral  matters. 

The  mineral  matters  embrace  metallic  sulphides  and  oxides, 
inert  mineral  substances  such  as  whiting  and  barytes,  and  sub- 
stances imparting  special  properties .  such  as  asbestos,  graphite, 
pumice,  etc. 

According  to  Carl  Otto  Weber,  Ph.  D.,  F.  C.  S.,  and  to  Percy 
Carter  Bell,  F.  I.  C.,  F.  C.  S.,  Dr.  Rob.  Henriques  has  by  his 
methods  of  analysis  solved  the  problem  that  troubled  the  analysts 
more  than  any  other,  which  was  that  of  determining  the  amount  of 
oil  substitutes  found  in  India-rubber  compounds. 

Dr.  Henriques's  methods  are  as  follows :  Fuming  nitric  acid 
to  the  amount  of  20  c.  c.,  is  placed  in  a  small  dish  covered  with 
a  funnel,  through  the  stem  of  which  3  to  4  grams  of  rubber  are 
slowly  added.  When  the  action  has  ceased,  the  dish  is  warmed 
gently  on  a  water  bath  until  the  contents  are  of  the  consistency 
of  a  thin  syrup.  There  is  then  added  4  grams  of  a  mixture  of  4 
parts  of  sodium  carbonate  and  3  parts  of  potassium  nitrate,  after 
which  it  is  carefully  fused,  and  treated  with  dilute  muriatic  acid, 
then  evaporated  to  dryness  to  render  silica,  if  present,  insoluble, 
redissolved  by  adding  a  little  nitric  acid,  and,  last,  the  sulphuric 
acid  is  precipitated  with  barium  chloride.  The  residue  of  silica 
may  contain  sulphates  of  lead  or  of  barium.  Ammonium  acetate 
dissolves  the  former. 

In  estimating  the  sulphur  of  vulcanization,  and  also  the  ex- 
cess of  sulphur,  they  must  be  separated  from  that  present  in  the 
form  of  sulphates  and  sulphides.  This  is  done  in  the  following 
manner :  The  sample  of  rubber  is  dissolved  in  that  fraction  of  or- 
dinary petroleum  which  distills  over  at  from  140°  to  250°  C.,  being 
kept  in  the  solvent  at  a  boiling  temperature  for  two  days.  From 
5  to  15  grams  of  the  sample  are  placed  in  a  weighed  flask,  and, 
after  adding  about  150  c.  c.,  petroleum  free  from  sulphur,  all  the 
inorganic  matter  is  dissolved  by  heating  the  flask  with  reflux  con- 
denser at  about  150°  C.  The  subsequent  processes  are  the  filtering 
of  the  solution,  the  careful  washing  of  the  flask  with  hot  petro- 


TESTS  OF  VULCANIZED  RUBBER.  223 

leum,  and  the  rinsing  of  both  flask  and  filter  with  petroleum  ether. 
Those  substances  insoluble  in  petroleum  are  determined  by 
weighing  on  the  tared  filter  at  110°  C. 

The  sulphur  in  this  residue  which  is  easily  determined,  when 
deducted  from  the  total  sulphur  of  the  sample,  gives  the  amount 
of  the  free  sulphur,  and  sulphur  of  vulcanization.  If  the  rubber 
contains  metallic  oxides  or  carbonates,  some  of  the  sulphur  may 
have  been  oxidized  to  sulphuric  acid,  and  the  results  noted  above 
may  be  too  low. 

The  rubber  substitutes  in  the  compound  are  completely  and 
easily  soluble  in  alcoholic  potash.  The  following  is  the  manner 
of  this  analysis:  From  3  to  5  grams  of  the  rubber  compound, 
finely  divided,  is  boiled  for  about  8  hours  in  ten  times  its  weight 
of  alcoholic  soda,  8  per  cent,  strong.  The  solution,  diluted  with 
water,  is  freed  from  the  alcohol  by  means  of  a  water  bath,  after 
which  the  residue  on  a  weighed  filter  is  washed,  dried,  and  weigh- 
ed. To  determine  the  residue  or  ignition  of  the  extracted  residue, 
one  gram  is  taken  and  the  ignition  performed  in  the  presence  of 
ammonium  nitrate.  If  now  the  substance  extracted  from  the  rub- 
ber is  free  from  chlorine,  it  may  either  consist  of  free  oil,  or  be  de- 
rived from  black  rubber  substitute.  In  the  latter  case,  it  must  con- 
tain at  least  10  per  cent,  of  sulphur,  but  in  the  former,  only  traces 
of  sulphur  will  be  present.  An  estimation  therefore  of  the  chlorine 
and  of  the  sulphur  in  the  alcoholic  extract  determines  the  pres- 
ence of  white  substitute,  black  substitute,  or  sulphur. 

In  using  caustic  alkali  a  certain  amount  of  the  alkali  will  be 
retained,  the  amount  of  which  must  be  determined,  if  correct 
figures  are  to  be  secured.  Repeated  washings  in  dilute  muriatic 
acid  remove  this,  and  allow  of  its  determination. 

The  following  data  are  necessary  in  the  analysis  of  vulcan- 
ized rubber  containing  substitute  or  oil:  (i)  The  total  sulphur; 
(2)  the  total  ash;  (3)  the  weight  of  the  substance  after  extrac- 
tion with  alcoholic  soda;  (4)  the  sulphur,  the  ash,  and  the  sul- 
phur in  the  extracted  fatty  acids  all  to  be  found  in  the  third  sub- 
stance. Also,  the  weight  of  the  substance  after  extraction  with 
alcoholic  soda.  From  1.5  to  2  grams  of  substance  are  used,  the 
extraction  being  twice  repeated,  each  boiling  being  from  two  to 
three  hours.  The  quantity  of  rubber  dissolved  by  the  alcoholic 


224  ANALYSES  OF  RUBBER. 

soda  is  deducted  from  the  weight  of  the  total  extract.    This  cor- 
rection averages  2.5  per  cent. 

From  the  above  figures,  the  percentage  of  rubber  and  fatty 
acids  may  be  calculated  by  equations,  which  read: 

TOO 

Rubber  =  (Weight  of  substance  after  extraction  of  alcoholic 

97.5  soda  —  its  sulphur  —  its  ash). 

The  fatty  acids  from  this  equation: 

Fatty  acids  =  100  —  (total  sulphur  -f-  total  ash  +  percentage  of 

rubber  found  from  the  foregoing  equation). 

The  sulphur  contained  in  the  rubber  substitute  is  represented 
by  assuming  that  quantity  to  be  about  equal  to  that  of  the  fatty 
acids  in  white  substitute  and  about  1.5  per  cent,  larger  than  the 
quantity  of  fatty  acids  in  brown  substitute.  The  difference  be- 
tween the  total  sulphur  and  the  sulphur  in  the  substitute  is  the 
sulphur  of  vulcanization.  Asphalt  being  often  present  in  rubber 
compounds,  by  first  dissolving  the  free  sulphur  by  treatment  with 
alcoholic  soda,  and  then  dissolving  the  asphalt  out  by  means  of 
nitrobenzene,  it  is  easily  determined.  The  presence  of  mineral  oils, 
paraffine,  and  resins  are  the  only  things  that  interfere  with  this 
means  of  extraction. 

The  following  tests  are  credited  to  C.  A.  Lobuy  de  Bruyn : 

1.  EXTRACT  TEST. — (Henriques's  method). — Three  grams 
of  the  finely  divided  sample  when  boiled  for  six  hours  with  50  c.  c. 
of  a  6  per  cent,  alcoholic  solution  of  caustic  soda  should  not  lose 
more  than  8  per  cent.,  the  loss  to  be  calculated  upon  the  organic 
substance  of  the  sample.   The  extract  should  contain  sulphur  and 
rubber  resins. 

2.  DRY  HEAT  TEST. — Two  grams  of  the  finely  divided  sam- 
ple are  heated  to  135°  C.  for  two  hours.   When  cold  the  sample 
should  not  have  suffered  any  alteration  and  should  show  a  loss  of 
weight  not  exceeding  1.5  per  cent. 

3.  MOIST  HEAT  TEST. — A  small  piece  of  the  sample  is  sealed 
in  a  glass  tube  half  filled  with  water.     The  tube  is  then  heated 
to  170°  C.  for  four  hours.   The  sample  should  not  be  affected  by 
this  treatment. 

4.  ASH. — About  i  gram  of  the  sample  is  fused,  decomposed, 


REINHARDTS  METHOD.  225 

and  partly  ignited  over  a  small  flame  in  a  porcelain  crucible.  The 
heat  is  then  increased  and  ignition  completed. 

Dr.  C.  Reinhardt,  in  Dingler's  Polytechnisches  Journal, 
writes  as  follows  on  the  analysis  of  vulcanized  India-rubber :  "The 
determination  of  the  ashes  is  effected  by  gradually  heating  in  a 
covered  crucible  .0182  ounce  of  the  product  until  the  cessation  of 
gaseous  liberation.  The  calcination  is  finished  in  an  open  crucible, 
care  being  taken  not  to  heat  too  much,  so  as  to  avoid  the  losses 
due  to  the  volatilization  of  the  substances  composing  the  ashes. 
To  determine  the  proportion  of  mineral  substances  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  sulphur)  .0182  ounce  of  India-rubber  fragments  is 
moistened  with  1.2  cubic  inch  of  D  nitric  acid  (=  14. and  heating 
takes  place  in  a  water  bath  for  five  to  seven  minutes,  until  com- 
plete dissolution  ensues.  Dry  evaporation  takes  place  in  the 
water  bath,  followed  by  moistening  with  hydrochloric  acid  and 
dissolution  in  water.  The  residue  is  formed  of  sulphate  of 
barium  and  silica  acid;  the  quantitative  analysis  of  the  sub- 
stances contained  in  the  liquid  (oxide  of  zinc,  lime,  magnesia, 
oxide  of  iron,  and  alumina)  being  made  according  to  the  usual 
methods.  To  determine  the  total  of  sulphur  there  is  treated 
.0357  ounce  of  the  product  (while  heated)  with  1.2  cubic  inches 
of  nitric  acid ;  chlorate  of  potash  being  gradually  added  until  oxi- 
dation is  complete.  After  evaporation  and  dissolution  in v  water, 
with  the  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid,  follows  precipitation.  Then 
takes  place,  the  quantitative  analysis  of  the  sulphuric  acid  by  the 
chloruret  of  barium  and  of  the  remainder  of  the  sulphuric  acid  in 
the  insoluble  residue  of  sulphate  of  baryta.  It  is  possible  to  deter- 
mine the  quantity  of  sulphur  added  for  the  vulcanization  by  burn- 
ing the  product  in  a  current  of  oxygen  at  a  low  temperature  by 
passing  the  vapors  across  hydrochloric  acid  containing  bromine, 
and  by  analyzing  quantitatively  the  sulphuric  acid  formed  in  the 
condition  of  sulphate  of  baryta.  The  India-rubber  can  likewise 
be  distilled  in  glass  tubes  and  the  quantity  of  sulphur  in  the  dis- 
tilled liquor  can  be  ascertained." 

Dr.  Weber's  exceedingly  valuable  article  printed  in  the  Jour- 
nal of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry  is  probably  the  most  com- 
prehensive treatment  that  the  subject  of  the  analysis  of  vulcanized 
rubber  has  yet  received.  The  steps  in  that  analysis  are  thus  shown : 


226  ANALYSES  OF  RUBBER. 

SUMMARY  OF  WEBER'S  METHODS  OF  ANALYSIS. 


I.  Acetone  (10  runs  in  Soxhlet  tube). 


II.  Boiling  Alcoholic  Soda  (8  per  cent). 


Fatty  and 
Mineral 
Oils, 
Resins  and 
Free 
Sulphur. 

Rubber 
Substitutes. 

III.  Cold  Nitrobenzole. 

Asphaltum. 

IV.  Boiling  Nitrobenzole  (Soxhlet 
tube). 

Rubber  and 
Sulphur 
of  Vul- 
canization. 

V.  Residue. 

Mineral  matters  and 
free  carbon. 

The  rubber  substitutes  are  determined  by  extracting  in  alco- 
holic soda  solution  and  asphaltum  by  cold  nitrobenzene,  both  of 
these  methods  being  Henriques's.  The  rubber  is  separated  by 
extraction  with  boiling  nitrobenzene  in  the  Soxhlet  tube.  Starch 
is  dissolved  out  by  boiling  water.  The  mineral  and  carbonaceous 
matters  are  determined  in  the  final  residue.  The  matters  in  the 
acetone  extract,  the  rubber  and  mineral  matters  are  determined  by 
weighing  after  evaporation.  Substitutes  and  asphaltum  are  best 
determined  in  the  loss  of  weight  operated  upon. 

Of  the  various  forms  of  sulphur  occurring  in  rubber,  the 
determination  of  free  sulphur  and  sulphur  of  vulcanization,  is  of 
great  importance.  The  estimation  of  the  free  sulphur  is  made  in 
the  acetone  extract.  Not  all  the  sulphur  in  this  extract  is  free,  as 
the  presence  of  rubber  substitutes  in  the  sample  means  that  the 
extracts  will  contain  sulphides  of  the  fatty  acids,  also  the  sul- 
phides produced  by  the  action  of  free  sulphur  on  the  resins  always 
found  in  rubber.  To  estimate  the  sulphur  in  the  acetone  extract, 
add  20  c.  c.  of  a  solution  of  pure  sodium  sulphide  and  caustic 
soda  and  heat  the  mixture  on  a  water  bath  for  an  hour.  Dilute  the 
solution  with  warm  water,  and  precipitate  the  fatty  acids  by  add- 
ing a  slight  excess  of  barium  hydrate.  Filter,  wash,  and  make  up 
the  filtrate  to  300  c.  c.  and  estimate  the  sulphur  in  an  aliquot  part. 


DETERMINATION  OF  SULPHUR.  227 

In  determining  the  sulphur  of  vulcanization,  the  free  sulphur 
must  first  be  removed,  and  for  this  purpose,  the  acetone  extract 
answers  very  well.  In  every  case  the  sulphur  of  vulcanization 
should  be  estimated  direct.  The  solution  of  rubber  in  nitroben- 
zene is  therefore  distilled  under  reduced  pressure.  The  flask  con- 
taining the  non-volatile  residue  is  then  dried  at  140°  C.,  and  then 
oxidized  with  fuming  nitric  acid.  When  the  residue  has  finally 
dissolved,  the  solution  is  poured  into  a  platinum  dish,  the  flask 
being  rinsed  with  warm  nitric  acid.  The  residue  is  then  evaporated 
on  the  water  bath,  fused  with  carbonate  of  soda,  dissolved  in  wa- 
ter, oxidized  with  bromine,  acidulated  with  muriatic  acid,  and  the 
sulphur  precipitated  with  barium  chloride.  The  sulphur  in  the 
asphaltum  which  is  in  the  cold  nitrobenzol  solution  is  determined 
in  a  similar  manner. 

The  India-Rubber  and  GuttarPercha  Trades  Journal  thus 
briefly  summarizes  processes  for  analyzing  vulcanized  rubber: 
"The  analysis  of  crude  rubber  does  not  offer  great  difficulties. 
The  sample  has  carefully  to  be  taken,  which  is  best  done  with  the 
help  of  rollers,  as  used  in  rubber  works.  While  kneading  the  rub- 
ber on  the  rollers,  the  rubber  is  mechanically  purified  by  a  water 
spray,  and  the  loss  in  weight  ascertained.  Of  the  dried  substance, 
5  or  10  grams  are  extracted  by  a  Soxhlet  apparatus  with  acetone 
for  several  hours,  when  the  rubber  resins  pass  into  solution ;  both 
the  residue  and  ashes  are  then  determined.  Finished  articles  can 
generally  be  filed  into  friable  powder.  This  is  digested  with  alco- 
holic soda  lye,  filtered,  and  washed  with  hot  alcohol ;  the  residue  is 
boiled  with  water,  the  liquid  always  being  passed  through  the 
same  filter,  then  with  hydrochloric  acid,  one  filter  being  used, 
quickly  dried,  and  weighed.  The  residue  would  still  contain  the 
bound  sulphur,  silicates,  sulphates  of  barium,  etc.  What  remains 
when  sulphur  and  ashes  have  been  allowed  for,  may  be  put  down 
as  rubber.  " 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

GUTTA-PERCHA— ITS  SOURCES,  PROPERTIES,  MANIPULATION,  AND 
PRINCIPAL  USES. 

GUTTA-PERCHA,  which  was  introduced  into  Europe  from 
Singapore  in  1843,  was  f°r  awhile  confounded  with  India-rubber, 
from  which  it  differs  in  some  very  important  particulars.  It  be- 
comes soft  and  plastic  on  immersion  in  hot  water,  retaining  the 
shape  then  given  it  on  cooling,  whereupon  it  becomes  hard,  but 
not  brittle  like  other  gums.  India-rubber,  on  the  other  hand,  does 
not  soften  in  hot  water,  and  retains  its  original  elasticity  and 
strength  almost  unimpaired.  The  water,  as  such,  exercises  no 
softening  action  on  Gutta-percha,  the  effect  being  purely  one  of 
temperature,  which  may  equally  well  be  produced  by  hot  air,  only 
somewhat  more  slowly.  The  degree  of  heat  required  depends 
upon  the  quality  of  the  material,  but  even  the  hardest  kinds  be- 
come plastic  above  150°  F.  Heated  in  air  considerably  above  the 
boiling  point  of  water,  Gutta-percha  decomposes  and  finally  ig- 
nites, burning  with  a  luminous  smoky  flame  and  emitting  a  pun- 
gent odor  resembling  that  from  burning  rubber.  If  heated  in  a 
vacuum,  gaseous  and  liquid  products  are  obtained  similar  to  those 
resulting  from  the  distillation  of  rubber.  The  liquid  which  distils 
over  consists  chiefly  of  hydrocarbons  of  the  terpene  series,  which 
form  an  excellent  solvent  for  caoutchouc.  The  two  most  impor- 
tant are  isoprene  and  caout chine,  which  are  identical  with  the 
liquids  by  the  same  names  obtained  from  India-rubber.  Since 
these  products  can  also  be  obtained  from  other  sources,  Dr.  Eu- 
gene Obach  and  others  have  observed  that  they  may  yet  form  a 
stepping-stone  in  the  synthetical  production  of  India-rubber  and 
Gutta-percha  from  the  lower  terpenes. 

A  curious  physical  characteristic  of  Gutta-percha  is  that 
when  it  has  been  softened  in  water,  although  it  is  so  plastic  that  it 
will  reproduce  the  most  delicate  impressions,  it  will  bear  blows 
from  hammers  or  allow  itself  to  be  thrown  against  a  stone  wall 
without  being  at  all  marred.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  it  con- 
tains a  large  amount  of  air.  By  placing  the  Gutta-percha  under 
a  bell  jar  immersed  in  mineral  oil,  when  a  vacuum  is  produced,  a 

228 


COMPONENTS  OF  GUTTA-PERCHA.  229 

large  amount  of  air  is  evolved  from  the  gum,  and  it  will  be  found 
to  have  lost  the  property  of  hardening  on  cooling,  its  substance 
being  like  a  tough  greasy  leather. 

Nowhere  on  the  globe  have  genuine  Gutta-percha  trees  been 
found  outside  of  a  rectangular  area  embracing  portions  of  the 
Malay  peninsula,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  some  adjacent  smaller 
islands.  Strange  to  say,  the  occurrence  of  these  trees  has  not  been 
established — though  they  may  yet  be  discovered — in  Java,  the 
Celebes,  or  the  Philippines.  These  trees  belong  to  the  natural 
order  Sapotaceae ;  the  principal  genera  and  species  will  be  noted 
further  on. 

According  to  Payen's  analysis,  verified  by  later  chemists, 
Gutta-percha  contains  three  components :  ( i )  a  substance  insolu- 
ble in  cold  and  in  boiling  alcohol,  which  he  termed  pure  gutta; 
(2)  a  crystaline  white  resin,  soluble  in  hot,  but  not  in  cold  alco- 
hol, which  he  called  albane;  (3)  an  amorphous  yellow  resin,  which 
he  named  fluavile.  Pure  gutta  is  insoluble  in  ether  and  light  pe- 
troleum spirit  at  ordinary  temperatures,  whereas  both  albane  and 
fluavile  dissolve  readily  in  them.  Gutta  possesses  all  the  valua- 
ble qualities  of  Gutta-percha,  but  in  a  much  enhanced  degree;  it 
becomes  soft  and  plastic  on  heating,  and  hard  and  tenacious  on 
cooling  without  being  in  the  least  brittle.  But  the  resins  them- 
selves are  either  soft  at  ordinary  temperatures,  or,  when  hard, 
quite  friable.  It  is,  therefore,  gutta  which  forms  the  useful  con- 
stituent of  Gutta-percha,  and  the  resins  are  only  accessory  com- 
ponents, which,  although  admissible,  and  perhaps  even  desirable 
in  a  comparatively  small  amount,  yet  have  a  decidedly  detrimen- 
tal effect  when  they  preponderate.  Hence,  in  order  to  determine 
the  technical  value  of  a  sample  of  Gutta-percha,  it  is  necessary 
first  to  learn  the  relative  proportion  or  ratio  between  gutta  and 
resins.  There  must  also  be  taken  into  account  the  water  enclosed 
in  the  mass,  and  the  coarser  impurities — wood  fibers,  bark,  sand, 
etc. — which  are  described  as  dirt.  These  components  represent  the 
loss  or  waste  to  the  manufacturer. 

While  the  relative  proportion  of  gutta  and  resins  forms  an 
important  criterion  for  estimating  the  commercial  value  of  a  sam- 
ple, it  is  not  in  itself  sufficient.  Although  the  analysis  of  two  dif- 
ferent specimens  may  give  the  same  result,  the  physical  and  me- 


230  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

chanical  properties,  and,  most  important  of  all,  the  durability,  may 
differ  widely,  owing  to  a  difference  in  their  molecular  constitu- 
tion. It  will  thus  be  seen  that  there  are  guttas  and  guttas.  In 
addition  to  the  qualitative  analysis,  it  is  necessary  to  scrutinize  the 
gutta  itself,  which  requires  much  judgment  and  experience. 
Analyses  have  been  made  of  specimens  which  contained  eight 
times  as  much  gutta  as  resin;  others  contained  about  an  equal 
amount  of  both,  and  in  others  still  the  amount  of  resin  was  three 
times  that  of  gutta.  Samples  in  which  the  percentage  of  resin 
reaches  that  of  gutta,  or  surpasses  it,  are  of  a  decidedly  inferior 
description.  These  differences  are  due  doubtless  to  the  fact  that 
the  Gutta-percha  of  commerce  is  derived  from  trees  of  various 
species,  and  also  in  part  to  the  treatment  which  the  gum  receives 
at  the  hands  of  the  gatherers,  who  are  suspected  of  mixing  the 
product  of  different  trees,  to  say  nothing  of  adulterations  of  a 
more  debasing  character. 

The  commercial  classification  of  Gutta-percha  is  less  satisfac- 
tory than  that  of  India-rubber,  since  no  standards  have  become 
fixed  in  the  markets.  While  Para  rubber,  for  instance,  may  be 
bought  and  sold  by  means  of  established  designations,  "Islands 
fine,"  "Upriver  fine,"  and  the  like,  no  such  practice  exists  with 
regard  to  Gutta-percha.  Since  all  transactions  in  the  latter  are 
based  upon  samples,  trade  names  and  brands  are  little  considered. 
However,  "Macassar"  and  "Banjermassin,"  which  are  the  names 
of  districts  producing  Gutta-percha,  were  used  formerly  to  indi- 
cate the  highest  quality,  while  "Sumatra"  sorts  were  supposed  to 
be  less  valuable,  and  Borneo  the  lowest  of  all.  In  a  sense  these 
designations  have  become  merely  commercial,  no  longer  affording 
any  indication  of  the  origin  of  the  Gutta-percha.  At  the  same 
time,  "Macassars"  and  "Banjermassins"  might  vary  with  every 
new  arrival,  so  that  one  was  not  certain,  in  buying  one  of  the 
sorts  named,  to  obtain  particularly  good  Gutta-percha;  it  might 
have  been  the  very  opposite. 

Innumerable  sorts  appear  in  the  Singapore  market — which 
is  the  center  of  the  Gutta-percha  trade — but  Dr.  Obach  selected 
twelve  of  the  principal  brands  as  typical  of  all  the  rest,  and  di- 
vided them  into  four  groups,  for  convenience  in  comparison,  the 
best  being  named  first.  They  are  as  follows,  the  designations 


PRINCIPAL  BRANDS.  231 

being  derived  either  from  the  countries  of  their  origin  or  from 
the  places  of  export: 

1.  Pahang — from  the  Malay  peninsula. 

2.  Bulongan  red — from  Macassar,  Borneo. 

3.  Banjer  red — from  Banjermassin,  South  Borneo. 
|    4.  Bagan  goolie  soondie — from  Borneo. 

II.         J    5.  Goolie  red  soondie — from  Serapong,  Borneo. 

(    6.  Serapong  goolie  soondie — from  Serapong,  Borneo. 

{7.  Bulongan  white — from  Macassar,  Borneo. 

8.  Mixed  white — from  Borneo. 

9.  Banjer  white — from  Banjermassin,  South  Borneo. 

(  10.  Sarawak  mixed — from  Borneo. 

IV.         «  ii.  Padang  reboiled— from  Sumatra. 

(  12.  Banca  reboiled — from  Banca. 

Group  I  comprises  the  three  best  kinds,  derived  from  trees 
of  the  genus  Dichopsis  (known  in  continental  Europe  as  Pala- 
quium).  Group  II  comprises  three  kinds  of  the  second  order, 
derived  probably  from  the  genus  Payena.  Group  III  embraces 
the  so-called  "white  gutta,"  of  second  and  third  grade,  mostly  of 
uncertain  origin,  but  probably  from  Dichopsis  polyantha.  Group 
IV  is  made  up  of  mixed  materials,  two  of  them  being  what  is 
termed  "reboiled"  (an  operation  performed  by  the  Chinese  tra- 
ders, who  buy  up  odd  lots,  soften  the  materials  in  hot  water,  and 
make  them  into  a  more  or  less  homogeneous  average  mixture). 
The  "Sarawak  mixed"  lots  mostly  represent  a  very  useful  second- 
class  material;  the  "reboiled"  is  decidedly  inferior.  This  classifi- 
cation is  based  upon  the  results  of  751  analyses  of  mixed  lots, 
representing  over  5,000,000  pounds  of  raw  Gutta-percha,  made 
by  Dr.  Obach,  with  a  view  to  arriving  at  the  relative  proportions 
of  gutta,  resin,  dirt,  and  water  contained.  The  cleanest  kind  is 
the  "Serapong  soondie,"  which  contains  only  3^  per  cent,  of  dirt, 
but  it  is  rather  wet,  having  more  than  25  per  cent,  of  water.  One 
of  the  least  favorable  materials  is  "Banjer  white,"  which  contains 
33  I-3  Per  cent-  of  water  and  15  per  cent,  of  dirt,  making  in  all 
nearly  50  per  cent,  of  waste.  When  a  raw  material  is  very  dirty 
and  wet,  it  is  noticeable  on  cutting  the  blocks  open,  and  this  is  now 
the  rule  in  the  Singapore  market.  The  blocks  are  then  sorted 
out  into  several  grades  (two  or  three,  sometimes  more)  accord- 
ing to  their  appearance,  and  valued  accordingly. 

A  grade  of  Gutta-percha  which  is  nearly  white  in  color  and 
very  brittle  is  apt  to  contain  a  large  percentage  of  resin,  which, 


232  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

as  already  explained,  renders  it  of  little  value.  In  explanation  of 
some  of  the  terms  in  the  preceeding  classification,  it  may  be  said 
that  Gutta-percha  is  obtained  principally  by  cutting  down  the 
trees  and  ringing  the  bark  at  intervals  of  12  to  18  inches  along 
the  trunk.  The  milky  sap  soon  fills  the  grooves  cut  into  the  bark, 
and,  in  the  better  varieties,  soon  coagulates,  when  it  is  scraped  off 
with  a  knife.  In  the  case  of  inferior  sorts,  the  milk  requires  more 
time  to  curdle,  and  has  to  be  caught  in  receptacles  placed  under 
the  tree.  The  collected  milk  is  then  gently  boiled,  either  by  itself 
or  with  the  addition  of  water.  The  material  obtained  without  the 
use  of  water  is  called  a  goolie,  the  other  a  gutta;  but  the  two  kinds 
are  often  mixed  together.  The  goolie  is  more  compact  than  the 
gutta,  and  has  a  dough-like  smell.  The  word  soondie  is  derived 
from  the  Malay  term  "Gutta-sundek,"  which  is  applied  to  the 
product  of  trees  of  the  Payena  species  already  referred  to. 

The  processes  employed  by  manufacturers  for  cleaning  raw 
Gutta-percha  are  either  mechanical  or  chemical.  Those  of  the 
first  class  will  first  be  considered.  Generally  speaking,  the  raw 
Gutta-percha  is  either  first  cut  up  in  a  slicing  machine  and  then 
softened  in  hot  water,  or  the  lumps  are  placed  directly  in  hot 
water  and  the  soft  material  transferred  to  the  washing  machine. 
There  it  is  washed  with  hot  water  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time, 
and  then  passed  through  a  strainer.  Next,  as  a  rule,  it  is  washed 
once  more,  then  put  into  a  kneading  or  masticating  machine,  to 
consolidate  it  and  remove  the  mechanically  enclosed  water,  and 
finally  it  goes  to  the  rolling  mill,  to  be  made  into  sheets. 

The  slicing  machine  or  chopper  now  used  is  pretty  much  the 
same  as  that  proposed  by  Charles  Hancock,  of  England,  in  his 
patent  (No.  n,  575,  O.  L.)  of  1847,  except  that  it  is  is  provided 
with  a  greater  number  of  fluted  and  serrated  knives,  instead  of 
only  three  plain  ones,  fixed  in  the  slots  of  a  heavy  iron  disc.  The 
blocks  of  Gutta-percha  are  packed  into  a  trough  and  then  forced 
against  the  rotating  disc,  the  knives  in  which  cut  the  material  into 
thin  slices. 

The  washing  machine  consists  of  an  iron  roller  of  star-shaped 
section,  enclosed  in  a  cylindrical  shell  provided  with  one  or  two 
projections,  or  ribs,  against  which  the  Gutta-percha  is  forced  in 
going  round.  The  cylindrical  shell  is  enclosed  in  a  large  iron 


MECHANICAL  TREATMENT.  233 

case,  filled  with  water,  which  is  heated  by  means  of  direct  steam. 
The  dirt,  as  it  is  washed  off,  falls  through  the  lower  part  of  the 
cylindrical  shell  into  the  outer  case,  whence  it  is  drawn  off  once 
in  a  while.  This  machine  is  developed  from  that  described  in  the 
English  patent  of  R.  A.  Brooman  (No.  10,550,  O.  L.) 

The  Gutta-percha  leaves  the  washing  machine  in  a  plastic 
state  and  passes  to  the  straining  machine — a  strong  iron  cylinder 
with  a  perforated  bottom,  on  which  a  number  of  discs  of  fine  wire 
gauze  have  been  placed.  It  has  a  piston  which  is  driven  home  by 
hydraulic  power,  at  a  pressure  of  1,500  to  2,000  pounds  per  square 
inch,  squeezing  the  soft  Gutta  through  the  meshes  of  the  gauze. 

The  kneading  machine  or  masticator  resembles  the  washer, 
except  that  the  roller  is  smaller  in  diameter,  and  the  flutings  are 
more  numerous  and  not  so  deep.  The  Gutta-percha  is  kept  hot 
during  mastication  and  the  water  escapes  in  the  form  of  steam 
through  openings  at  the  top. 

The  mixing  machine,  introduced  by  Paul  Pfeiderer,  is  similar 
to  that  used  in  the  India-rubber,  linoleum,  and  other  similar  in- 
dustries. It  is  provided  with  peculiarly-shaped  blades,  working 
against  one  another.  The  machine  is  used  for  mixing  the  various 
sorts  of  Gutta-percha,  in  order  to  obtain  a  material  of  any  requi- 
site properties,  and  also  for  blending  Gutta-percha  with  pigments 
or  other  ingredients.  The  rolls  can  be  heated  by  steam,  but  heat 
is  developed  by  the  kneading  process  itself,  and  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  overheat  the  material. 

The  Gutta-percha  is  next  rolled  into  sheets,  usually  between 
•J  and  i  inch,  and  cut  into  lengths  of  5  or  6  feet,  and  stacked  away 
for  use.  The  rolling  machine  takes  the  material  from  the  mixer 
and  squeezes  it  between  parallel  rollers,  running  it  back  and  forth 
until  it  is  cool  and  hard  enough  for  cutting  up. 

The  average  percentages  of  waste,  shown  by  numerous  anal- 
yses of  the  twelve  brands  of  Gutta-percha  catalogued  on  a  pre- 
ceding page,  are  about  as  follows: 

Pahaug 34  Bulongan  white 43 

Bulongan  red 35  White  mixed 35 

Banjer  red 44  Ban jer  white 47 

Bagan  goolie  soondie 32  Sarawak  mixed 44 

Goolie  red  soondie 27  Padang  reboiled 44 

Serapong  soondie 36  Banca  reboiled 29 


234  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

The  difference  in  the  quality  of  various  brands  of  Gutta- 
percha,  measured  by  the  relative  proportions  of  gutta  and  resin, 
has  already  been  mentioned.  Of  the  sorts  mentioned  above,  "Ban- 
ca  reboiled"  shows  a  comparatively  small  loss  in  cleaning,  but  it 
is  the  least  valuable  on  the  list,  being  low  in  gutta,  whereas  "Pa- 
hang,"  though  losing  more  in  the  cleaning  process,  is  by  far  the 
most  valuable  sort  in  the  market,  because  so  rich  in  gutta.  Gut- 
ta-percha imported  in  recent  years  loses  more  in  cleaning  than 
formerly;  Dr.  Obach,  in  1898,  estimated  the  loss  as  almost  twice 
as  great  as  formerly. 

The  chemical  washing  process  was  suggested  by  Charles 
Hancock,  in  an  English  patent,  in  1846.  He  steeped  raw  Gutta- 
percha,  cut  into  small  pieces,  in  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali  or 
chloride  of  lime,  to  neutralize  the  acidity  and  remove  any  unplea- 
sant odor.  His  experiments  showed  that  the  alkaline  treatment  not 
only  reduced  the  percentage  of  dirt — that  is,  it  was  better  cleaned 
than  by  the  mechanical  process — but  lessened  the  capacity  of  the 
Gutta-percha  for  retaining  mechanically  enclosed  water.  But  the 
treatment  with  chemicals  requires  great  care  and  judgment,  and 
thorough  subsequent  washing  with  water ;  otherwise  the  material 
will  be  rendered  perishable. 

Chemicals  were  also  used  by  Obach  for  hardening  Gutta- 
percha.  The  really  valuable  constituent  of  Gutta-percha  being 
the  gutta,  the  more  a  sample  contains  of  the  latter,  the  better  it  is, 
provided  the  gutta  itself  is  of  a  good  description.  For  certain 
purposes  it  is  advantageous  to  improve  the  hardness  and  other 
mechanical  properties  of  Gutta-percha,  and  this  can  be  done  by 
extracting  the  resin  with  a  suitable  solvent,  which  leaves  the  gutta 
itself  intact.  The  raw  Gutta-percha  is  first  chopped  and  thrown 
on  drying  platforms  gently  heated  from  below  by  steam  pipes. 
Or  the  pieces  may  be  thrown  into  a  rotating  drum  heated  by  cur- 
rents of  warm  air.  They  then  go  to  a  series  of  tanks  in  which 
petroleum  spirit  is  used  as  a  solvent  for  the  resin.  The  spirit 
becomes  charged  with  the  resinous  matters,  and  the  resulting 
solution  is  distilled  off,  after  which  the  material  remaining  is 
masticated  as  in  the  case  of  any  other  Gutta-percha.  A  speci- 
men treated  by  this  process  will  remain  quite  hard  under  a  tem- 
perature which  will  render  other  specimens  soft  and  plastic. 


GREEN  GUTTA-PERCHA— BAL  AT  A.  235 

Other  liquids  may  also  be  used,  as  ether,  and  a  saturated  solution 
of  carbon  disulphide  in  alcohol. 

Instead  of  removing  impurities  from  Gutta-percha  by  wash- 
ing it  either  with  water  or  an  alkali,  this  can  be  done  by  dissolv- 
ing the  material  into  a  suitable  liquid,  straining  or  filtering  the 
solution,  and  then  evaporating  the  solvent.  Carbon  disulphide 
has  been  used  as  the  solvent,  but  with  the  effect  of  rendering  the 
Gutta-percha  perishable. 

Recently  an  article  known  as  Green  Gutta-percha  has  been 
offered  to  the  trade,  being  extracted  from  the  leaves  of  the  trees. 
Several  systems  for  extracting  Gutta-percha  from  leaves  have 
been  described.  That  of  Dieudonne  Rigole  involves  the  use  of 
carbon  disulphide ;  that  of  Eugene  Serullas  the  use  of  hot  toluene 
as  a  solvent,  after  which  the  Gutta-percha  is  precipitated  by 
means  of  acetone,  instead  of  distilling  off  the  solvent ;  and  that  of 
Obach  the  use  of  light  petroleum  spirit  as  a  solvent  for  leaves 
that  have  been  previously  crushed  between  rollers,  the  gum  being 
reprecipitated  from  the  solution  on  cooling  below  60°  F.  The 
author  of  each  process  has  devised  apparatus  for  its  operation. 

Many  trees  produce  gums  which  have  been  experimented 
with  in  the  hope  that  they  would  prove  good  substitutes  for  Gutta- 
percha,  but  none  has  proved  of  value  except  the  "bullet"  tree, 
which  yields  Balata.  The  gutta  contained  in  Balata  is  very  strong 
and  tough,  being  of  excellent  quality ;  but  the  percentage  of  resin 
is  large,  and  the  material  can  be  regarded  as  a  substitute  only  for 
second-class,  or  perhaps  even  third-class,  Gutta-percha.  Balata 
is  somewhat  more  flexible  than  Gutta-percha  containing  an  equal 
amount  of  resin,  which  appears  to  be  due  to  the  softness  of  the 
resinous  constituents.  On  becoming  heated  Balata  behaves  much 
like  ordinary  Gutta-percha.  If  plunged  into  boiling  water  it  be- 
comes quite  soft  and  plastic.  If  next  immersed  in  cold  water,  it 
slowly  hardens  again,  but  still  remains  flexible  and  elastic,  show- 
ing no  signs  of  brittleness.  Analyses  of  specimens  of  Balata  from 
British  Guiana,  obtained  from  the  London  docks  in  1889-94, 
showed  an  average  loss  of  13.8  per  cent,  of  water,  and  9.9  per 
cent,  of  dirt,  or  a  total  of  237  per  cent,  of  waste.  The  respec- 
tive percentages  of  gutta  and  resin  were  41.4  and  34.8. 

The  specific  gravity  of  cleaned  Gutta-percha  is  practically 


236  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

the  same  as  that  of  water,  though  varying  with  the  relative  pro- 
portion of  gutta  and  resin,  becoming  lower  as  the  percentage  of 
resin  increases.  It  may  be  affected,  also,  by  the  constitution  of 
the  resin  and  also  of  the  gutta.  The  softening  temperature  of 
Gutta-percha  depends  entirely  upon  the  ratio  of  gutta  and  resin. 
A  specimen  of  which  60  per  cent,  was  resin  was  softened  at  the 
temperature  of  48°  C.  to  the  same  extent  as  another  specimen, 
containing  only  2-J  per  cent,  of  resin,  for  which  a  temperature  of 
55°  C.  was  required.  The  time  for  the  material  to  become  hard 
again,  after  having  previously  been  softened  in  hot  water,  depends 
in  a  like  degree  upon  the  proportion  of  gutta  and  resin.  But  the 
principal  mechanical  property  of  Gutta-percha  with  which  the 
manufacturer  has  to  deal  is  the  tensile  strength.  A  specimen  hav- 
ing 45  per  cent,  of  gutta  and  55  per  cent,  of  resin  will  break  under 
pressure  of  770  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  whereas  for  another 
specimen,  after  most  of  the  resin  has  been  extracted  with  petro- 
leum spirit,  nearly  twice  that  breaking  strain  would  be  required. 
As  for  the  elongation  of  Gutta-percha — i.  e.,  the  extent  to  which  it 
will  stretch  before  breaking — it  is  also  affected  by  the  percentage 
of  resin,  being  in  the  last  two  cases,  for  instance,  490  and  500 
per  cent.,  respectively,  but  it  also  depends  on  the  nature  of  the 
gutta. 

The  earliest  practical  use  of  Gutta-percha  was  for  surgical 
appliances — for  bandages,  splints,  and  receptacles  for  vaccine 
virus.  It  is  used  for  ear  trumpets;  for  the  handles  of  surgical 
instruments,  as  it  affords  a  firm  grip  and  is  preferable  to  wood 
for  antiseptic  reasons;  in  medicine,  in  the  form  (i)  of  a  very 
thin  tissue,  (2)  of  sticks,  and  (3)  of  a  10  per  cent,  solution  in 
chloroform;  for  chemical  purposes,  in  the  form  of  tubes,  pumps, 
syringes,  bottles,  and  the  like,  and  for  ladles  and  tubes  for  hand- 
ling caustic  alkalies  and  corrosive  acids  and  liquids  in  chemical 
works ;  and  for  mechanical  purposes,  as  rings  and  cups  for  pumps 
and  hydraulic  presses  and  for  driving-bands  (belting).  For  the 
later  purpose  Balata  is  also  used  largely,  interposed  between  can- 
vas ;  such  belts  can  be  joined  by  means  of  a  solution  of  Balata  or 
Gutta-percha  in  carbon  disulphide.  Another  application  of  Gutta- 
percha  is  that  for  taking  impressions  of  medals,  and  also  of  the 
interior  of  large  guns.  Gutta-percha  is  also  modelled  into  orna- 


USES  IN  INSULA TION.  237 

ments  in  the  shape  of  the  leaves  and  petals  of  flowers,  this  being 
done  by  working  the  gum  by  hand  in  hot  water  with  one  or  two 
simple  iron  tools.  Such  ornaments  are  often  applied  to  the  deco- 
ration of  jars  made  of  semi-porous  ware,  the  whole  being  painted 
afterward. 

But  the  most  important  application  of  Gutta-percha  is  in  the 
insulation  of  submarine  and  subterranean  cables.  Dr.  Werner 
von  Siemens  first  proposed  Gutta-percha  for  insulating  purposes 
in  1846,  and  in  the  next  year  he  designed  a  screw-press,  for  the 
seamless  covering  of  wires  with  that  material,  which  is  still  in 
existence,  while  the  principle  of  the  press  is  still  adhered  to.  Gut- 
ta-percha has  been  found  to  be  very  permeable  to  the  X-rays,  and 
it  has  been  proposed  to  utilize  this  property  to  examine  Gutta- 
percha-covered  wires  for  the  detection  of  defects  in  the  copper 
conductor,  particularly  in  "joints,"  or  for  finding  air-bubbles. 
The  X-rays  may  also  be  used  for  the  detection  of  large  foreign 
bodies  in  the  raw  Gutta-percha.  Up  to  the  end  of  1896  no  less 
than  184,000  miles  of  commercial  submarine  cables  had  been  laid, 
embodying  the  use  of  Gutta-percha  of  a  weight  estimated  at  16,- 
ooo  tons.  Another  100,000  miles  of  cable  had  been  laid  by  the 
various  governments  for  military  defense,  which  would  require 
8,000  tons  more,  or  a  total  of  24,000  tons  for  submarine  cables. 
A  further  allowance  must  be  made,  for  underground  cables,  street 
wires,  etc.,  of  8,000  tons.  The  length  of  Gutta-percha-covered 
wires  under  the  streets  of  London  alone  is  17,000  miles,  corres- 
ponding to  375  tons  of  Gutta-percha. 

The  electric  properties  of  Gutta-percha  depend  chiefly  on  the 
nature  of  the  gutta  and  to  a  less  extent  upon  the  resin ;  but  only 
very  slightly  on  the  relative  proportion  of  these  two  components. 
They  depend  also  upon  the  nature  and  amount  of  the  impurities 
and  on  the  water.  The  insulation  resistance  and  inductive  capa- 
city are  little  affected  by  the  extraction  of  the  resin.  The  insula- 
tion should  be  as  high  as  possible,  and  the  inductive  capacity, 
for  most  purposes,  as  low  as  possible,  but  whereas  the  latter  is 
mostly  associated  with  other  good  qualities  of  the  material,  such  is 
not  always  the  case  with  a  high  insulation.  A  third  electric  prop- 
erty is  called  dielectric  strength,  or  resistance  to  piercing  by  high 
voltages.  A  thickness  of  a  little  over  -J  inch  of  Gutta-percha  breaks 


238  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

down  with  40,000  volts,  and  one  of  about  i-ioth  inch  with  28,000 
volts. 

Gutta-percha  hardened  by  the  extraction  of  its  resin  is  used 
chiefly  in  the  manufacture  of  golf  balls.  Gutta-percha  for  this 
purpose  should  be  tough,  elastic,  and  not  brittle  at  low  tempera- 
tures; it  should  be  specifically  lighter  than  water,  in  order  not  to 
sink  if  dropped  accidentally  into  a  ditch.  It  is  requisite  that  the 
proper  grade  of  raw  material  be  chosen  and  that  the  resin  be  ex- 
tracted as  completely  as  possible.  To  test  the  elasticity  of  golf 
balls,  a  machine  is  used,  consisting  (i)  of  a  perpendicular  scale, 
divided  into  feet  and  tenths;  (2)  a  clip,  at  the  top,  for  holding 
the  ball  to  be  tested;  and  (3)  an  iron  plate  at  the  bottom.  The 
object  is  to  measure  the  rebound  of  the  ball,  when  released  from 
the  clip  and  falling  upon  the  plate.  A  ball  made  of  Gutta-percha, 
of  which  25  per  cent,  was  resin,  rebounded  only  to  the  point  on 
the  scale  marked  30;  a  ball  containing  only  10  per  cent,  of  resin 
rebounded  to  45 ;  and  still  another,  having  only  a  small  percent- 
age, rebounded  to  60 — the  highest  point  reached.  A  ball  of  Ba- 
lata,  having  the  resin  thoroughly  removed,  rebounded  to  59. 

Some  figures  will  give  an  idea  how  greatly  the  physical  and 
mechanical  properties  of  Gutta-percha  are  affected  by  the  ex- 
traction of  the  resin.  Carefully  selected  specimens  of  a  medium 
quality  were  cut  fine  and  intimately  mixed,  and  then  divided  into 
two  portions.  One  portion  was  next  washed 'in  the  ordinary  way 
with  water;  the  other  treated  with  petroleum  spirit  until  nearly 
all  the  resin  had  been  extracted.  The  two  specimens  showed  the 
following  analyses : 

Gutta.        Resin.       Dirt.       U'ater.     Total. 

Cleaned  in  ordinary  way        54.7        39.4        2.7        3.2       100 
Same  material,  hardened        93.0          2.8        2.5         1.7       100 

The  different  physical  and  mechanical  properties  of  the  two 
specimens  are  indicated  in  the  next  comparison: 

Ordinary.        Hardened. 

Temperature  when  commencing  to  soften  37.7°C.  57.2°C. 

Temperature  when  commencing  to  harden  58.8°C.  9i.i°C. 

Time  of  hardening 17  min.  45  sec. 

Tensile  strength — pounds  per   square  inch  1592  5662 

Elongation — per  cent 360  285 

The  electrical  properties,  on  the  other  hand,  are  but  little 
affected,  the  insulation  being  practically  the  same  as  before,  and 


CAUSES  OF  DETERIORATION.  239 

the  decrease  of  specific  inductive  capacity  is  probably  due  to  the 
smaller  percentage  of  water  in  the  hardened  material. 

The  principal  cause  of  the  destruction  of  Gutta-percha  is  the 
absorption  of  atmospheric  oxygen,  which  alters  the  gutta  and  pro- 
duces a  brittle  resin  of  quite  a  different  nature  to  that  originally 
present  in  the  material.  This  destructive  oxidization  is  greatly 
assisted  by  light,  and  by  other  causes — for  instance,  by  any  action 
tending  to  make  the  material  porous,  such  as  alternate  wetness 
and  dryness,  the  presence  of  substances  which  exercise  a  solvent 
action  on  Gutta-percha  as  a  whole,  or  any  of  its  components. 
Certain  alkaline  substances  and  decaying  organic  matters  also 
appear  to  act  injuriously,  but  frequently  it  is  impossible  to 
assign  a  definite  cause  for  the  decay  of  Gutta-percha.  It  is,  how- 
ever, not  merely  manufactured  Gutta-percha  which  undergoes 
these  destructive  changes,  for  raw  material  of  the  very  best  kind 
succumbs  in  time  to  the  combined  action  of  light  and  air.  On 
the  other  hand,  specimens  of  Gutta-percha  are  in  existence  which, 
after  proper  means  of  protection,  have  remained  in  good  condition 
for  more  than  fifty  years.  Complete  immersion  in  water  affords 
a  good  protection,  for  which  reason  submarine  cores  of  Gutta- 
percha  are  more  safely  placed  than  underground  wires.  Another 
way  of  excluding  the  air,  to  some  extent,  is  to  varnish  the  Gutta- 
percha  articles.  When  Gutta-percha  is  oxidized  it  becomes  por- 
ous and  full  of  cracks.  If  it  is  used  for  insulating  wires,  the  insu- 
lation fails  at  such  places,  since  the  moisture  penetrates  the  pores 
and  fissures  and  establishes  an  electric  contact  with  the  conduct- 
ing wire. 

Some  compounds  containing  Gutta-percha  are  very  useful 
for  different  purposes,  and  a  specially  useful  one,  consisting  of  a 
mixture  of  Gutta-percha,  colophony,  and  Stockholm  tar,  is  known 
as  "Chatterton's  compound."  It  is  used  largely  in  connection 
with  the  manufacture  of  Gutta-percha-covered  wires,  as  a  bind- 
ing material  between  the  copper  conductor  and  the  Gutta-percha 
covering,  or  between  the  different  layers  of  Gutta-percha  on  the 
core. 

Willoughby  Smith  patented  the  following  compound  for  in- 
sulating wires :  One-fifth  by  weight  of  Stockholm  tar  and  about 
the  same  weight  of  resin  are  put  into  a  vessel  with  a  jacket  (or, 


24o  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

preferably,  a  series  of  pipes)  heated  by  steam;  when  properly 
melted  the  whole  is  passed  through  a  wire  gauze  strainer  "into 
another  vessel  similarly  heated" ;  three-fifths  by  weight  of  Gutta- 
percha,  having  by  preference,  been  previously  cleansed  in  the  ordi- 
dinary  way,  and  reduced  into  thin  pieces  or  shreds,  is  then  put 
into  the  heated  vessel  and  mixed  with  the  resin  and  tar.  In  this 
second  vessel  are  stirrers,  which  are  used  to  mix  the  whole  uni- 
formly. 

Leonard  Wray's  cable  compound  was  made  of  I  part  Gutta- 
percha,  4  parts  India-rubber,  2  parts  shellac,  2  parts  flower  of 
glass.  This  was  used  for  underground  wires. 

Gaullie  combined  Gutta-percha  with  Roman  cement  by  means 
of  animal  gall,  forming  a  plastic  material,  capable  of  being 
stamped  and  molded. 

Cooley  mixed  Gutta-percha  with  resin  oil  under  heat,  then 
mixed  in  carbonate  of  soda  with  roasted  starch.  To  this  compound 
he  added  asphalt  to  make  it  harder,  or  hyposulphite  of  lead,  to 
make  it  softer.  He  also  made  a  great  many  Gutta-percha  com- 
pounds in  which  salts  were  present.  These  he  steeped  in  water 
after  mixing  until  they  became  soft  and  flexible. 

Charles  Macintosh  made  a  compound  for  telegraph  wire  from 
Gutta-percha,  naphthaline,  and  lampblack. 

Charles  Hancock  boiled  Gutta-percha  in  muriate  of  lime, 
passed  it  between  heated  cylinders,  sifting  the  surface  with  rosin, 
in  the  production  of  a  compound  for  complete  insulation.  An- 
other of  his  compounds  was  made  of  Gutta-percha,  shellac,  and 
borax.  He  also  made  Gutta-percha  sponge  by  mixing  with  it 
carbonate  of  ammonia  or  alum  and  applying  heat.  He  also  made 
a  hard  Gutta-percha  which  was  similar  to  vulcanite  by  mixing  it 
with  sulphur,  putting  it  in  molds  and  keeping  the  compound  at  a 
high  temperature  for  several  days. 

Duncan  invented  a  great  many  compounds  for  Gutta-percha 
cement,  many  of  which  are  now  in  general  use.  One  suggestion 
of  his  was  the  mixing  of  Gutta-percha  with  Canada  balsam  and 
shellac,  the  resultant  compound  being  a  good  cement  capable  of 
standing  considerable  heat  and  in  no  danger  of  becoming  greasy 
on  its  surface. 

Robert  Hutchinson  claimed  that  he  was  able  to  render  Gutta- 


VULCANIZATION.  241 

percha  less  liable  to  oxidize,  to  improve  its  elasticity,  increase  its 
tenacity,  and  diminish  its  liability  to  become  sticky  or  tacky,  by 
compounding  it  with  lanichol  or  wood  cholesterin.  (See  Lano- 
line).  Forster  deodorized  Gutta-percha  by  mixing  with  it  essen- 
tial oil,  orris  root,  or  gum  benzoin. 

Liquid  Gutta-percha  is  Gutta-percha  dissolved  in  chloroform, 
to  which  a  little  carbonate  of  lead  is  added  in  the  shape  of  a  fine 
powder.  After  agitation,  the  mixture  is  set  aside  until  the  insolu- 
ble matter  has  settled.  The  clear  liquid  is  then  decanted. 

Spill,  in  order  to  prevent  Gutta-percha  that  had  been  vulcan- 
ized from  being  attacked  by  grease,  treated  it  to  a  solution  of 
melted  beeswax,  hardening  this  coating  with  an  infusion  of  nut 
galls.  Godefroy  mixed  Gutta-percha  with  powdered  cocoanut 
shell,  claiming  that  it  would  stand  a  higher  degree  of  heat,  and 
was  considerably  more  elastic.  Day  mixed  pipe  clay  with  Gutta- 
percha  that  is  being  vulcanized  in  order  to  prevent  its  sponging. 

The  vulcanization  of  Gutta-percha,  in  spite  of  a  common  im- 
pression to  the  contrary,  is  something  that  can  be  easily  accom- 
plished, and  is  analgous  to  the  vulcanization  of  India-rubber.  It 
can  be  done  by  mixing  with  free  sulphur  or  sulphides  that  con- 
tain free  sulphur,  or  by  the  use  of  chloride  of  sulphur.  As  the 
Parkes  mixture  attacks  Gutta-percha  very  easily,  the  dipping  for 
vulcanization  must  be  very  quick,  the  article  being  then  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  air  for  some  hours.  The  second  dip  can  be  a  lit- 
tle longer,  as  the  surface  is  less  easily  attacked  than  before.  The 
vulcanized  product  is  quite  hard  and  will  stand  a  high  degree  of 
heat.  Chloride  of  sulphur  mixed  with  bisulphide  of  carbon  can 
also  be  incorporated  in  a  solution  of  Gutta-percha  and  bisulphide 
of  carbon,  with  the  result  that  the  Gutta-percha  will  be  thorough- 
ly vulcanized. 

The  late  Robert  Dick,  of  Glasgow,  who  was  a  successful 
manufacturer  of  Gutta-percha  articles  in  the  mechanical  line,  pro- 
duced many  vulcanizable  compounds  of  Gutta-percha  of  great 
value,  some  of  which  follow.  He  claimed  that  his  compounded 
Gutta-percha  retained  the  good  qualities  of  the  gum ;  that  is,  that 
it  was  homogeneous  and  plastic  at  a  moderate  heat,  but  tough  and 
hard  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  that  it  was  just  as  valuable 
afterwards  for  mixing  and  molding  over  again. 


242  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

Compound  No.  i  is  described  as  the  hardest  and  toughest, 
and  may  be  used,  in  place  of  leather  and  vulcanized  India-rubber, 
for  tires,  belts,  pulley  coverings,  horse  shoes,  etc.  No.  2  is  softer 
and  more  elastic,  and  suitable  for  soles  and  heels  of  shoes,  wring- 
er rolls,  springs,  playing  balls,  mats,  etc.  These  goods  are  mixed 
in  the  usual  way,  and  vulcanize  in  the  masticator,  but  not  enough 
to  take  away  the  plastic  qualities  of  the  Gutta-percha.  For  treat- 
ing this  compound,  a  special  masticator  was  devised  by  Mr.  Dick, 
the  rolling  cylinders  being  hollow,  and  a  Bunsen  gas  burner  in- 
serted through  one  end  of  the  hollow  axle,  while  the  gases  pass 
off  at  the  other,  thus  heating  both  roller  and  mixture.  The  outer 
cylindrical  masticator  is  jacketed  and  heated  with  steam  : 

COMPOUND    NO.    I. 

Pure  cleaned  hard  Gutta-percha  ...................................  28 

Pure  cleaned   tough   selected   Gutta-percha  or   Balata   (preferably 

more  rather  than  less)  .........................................  1  1 

Pure  cleaned  "  low  white  "  Gutta-percha  (preferably  less  rather  than 

more)  ........................................................  9 

"  Crumb  "  or  ground  good  old  vulcanized  India-rubber  .............  34 

Hardwood  veneer  dust  .............................................  5 

Sulphur  ..........................................................  6>£ 

Zinc  oxide  (or  zinc  dust)  ............................................  3/i 

Flocking,  or  the  cut  fiber  of  cotton  textile  fabrics  ...................  3M 


Total  ......................  ...............................  ioo 

COMPOUND    NO.    2. 

Pure  cleaned  tough  Gutta-percha  ...................................  8>j 

Pure  cleaned  Balata  or  selected  Gutta-percha  .......................  8)| 

Pure  cleaned  "  low  white  "  Gutta-percha  ...........................  24 

"  Crumb  "  or  ground  good  old  vulcanized  India-rubber  .............  33 

Hard  ground  veneer  dust  ..........................................     5 

French  chalk,  powdered  ...............................  .............  6 

Sulphur  ..........................................................  6 

Zinc  oxide  (or  zinc  dust)  ...........................................     3 

Flocking,  or  the  cut  fiber  of  cotton  textile  fabrics  ...................     3 

Alum,  ground  .....................................................     3 

Total  ......................................................  i«o 

Another  compound  patented  by  Mr.  Dick  embraced  the  use 
of  low  grade  African  and  Borneo  rubbers,  which,  after  cleansing, 
were  mixed  with  Gutta-percha  while  still  moist  in  hot  water.  Af- 
ter the  mixing  the  compound  is  treated  under  a  moist  heat,  where 
the  temperature  is  212°  to  240°  F.,  the  result  being  a  tough,  plas- 
tic, fibrous  dough.  This  compound  is  then,  so  the  inventor  claims, 
equal  to  any  service  for  which  the  Gutta-percha  and  Balata  com- 


COMPOUNDS.  243 

pounds  are  used.  An  important  property  in  this  compound  is  the 
shrinking  quality  which  Gutta-percha  possesses,  while  its  power 
of  cohesion  rendered  it  especially  valuable  for  insulating  wires. 

Shepard  mixed  Gutta-percha  with  sulphur,  exposed  it  to  a 
heat  varying  from  300°  to  350°  F.,  admitting  hot  air,  then  com- 
bined it  with  sulphur  and  earthy  matters.  It  was  then  vulcanized 
by  Parkes's  cold  curing  process. 

Parkes  dissolved  Balata  and  mixed  it  with  5  per  cent,  of  chlo- 
ride of  sulphur,  diluted  with  mineral  naphtha.  Gun  cotton  was 
also  dissolved  to  a  pasty  mass,  in  naphtha  distilled  with  chloride 
of  calcium,  and  the  two  solutions  were  combined,  forming  a  soft, 
flexible  compound. 

Childs  vulcanized  Gutta-percha  by  mixing  it  with  sulphur 
and  placing  it  in  a  vulcanizer  containing  hydrated  lime,  and  then 
turning  on  heat  sufficient  to  obtain  enough  steam  from  the  lime 
to  do  the  curing. 

Duvivier  and  Chaudet  treated  Gutta-percha  with  bromide  of 
sulphur  or  chloride  of  sulphur,  making  it  more  elastic  and  less 
liable  to  be  acted  on  by  heat  or  cold.  When  acid  vapors  were 
formed  during  the  operation,  carbonate  of  sodium  was  mixed 
with  the  solution. 

Rostaing  made  Gutta-percha  hard  and  unalterable  by  treating 
it,  after  cleansing,  with  caustic  soda,  which  was  thoroughly  wash- 
ed out,  after  which  it  was  combined  with  silicate  of  magnesia  and 
treated  with  tannin,  catechu,  and  other  astringent  matter. 

Keene  cured  Gutta-percha  articles  by  exposing  them  to  the 
fumes  of  sulphur  or  immersing  them  in  a  bath  of  melted  sulphur. 

Charles  Hancock  treated  Gutta-percha  in  a  bath  of  boiling 
water  in  which  was  carbonate  of  potash,  or  muriate  of  lime,  leav- 
ing it  for  an  hour,  and  then  mixing  it  with  lead,  glue,  and  bitu- 
men. His  claim  was  that  this  treatment  hardened  the  Gutta- 
percha,  rendered  it  better  adapted  for  bearing  friction,  and  less 
likely  to  be  oxidized.  He  also  cured  Gutta-percha  by  mixing 
with  it  sulphur,  sulphides  or  orpiment,  and  applying  heat.  He 
gave  as  a  compound  for  vulcanizing  Gutta-percha  48  parts  Gut- 
ta-percha, 6  parts  golden  sulphuret  antimony,  and  I  part  sulphur, 
the  compound  to  be  boiled  under  pressure. 

Emory  Rider  mixed  Gutta-percha  with  oxide  of  lead,  heated 


244  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

it  in  open  steam  heat  until  the  oily  matters  were  expelled,  then 
mixed  it  with  hyposulphite  of  lead  and  cured  it. 

Lucas  prepared  a  printing  roll  of  Gutta-percha,  first  immers- 
ing the  Gutta-percha  in  nitric  acid,  and  then  placing  it  for  an 
hour  in  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  soda,  thus  producing  a  tougher 
wearing  surface. 

Barlow  and  Forster  mixed  Gutta-percha  with  Kauri  gum 
and  milk  of  sulphur  for  a  cable  coating. 

Macintosh  immersed  Gutta-percha  in  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  for  a  number  of  seconds  to  harden  the  surface.  He  also 
mixed  Gutta-percha  with  gun  cotton,  curing  with  sulphuric  acid, 
claiming  that  the  resultant  compound  was  not  likely  to  be  affected 
by  the  heat  of  tropical  climates. 

Analyses  of  common  Gutta-percha,  by  Edouard  Heckel  and 
Fr.  Schlagdenhauffen : 

Gutta 75    to    82 

Albane 19     to     14 

Fluavile 6     to      4 

Total 100          loo 

Analysis  by  Payen: 

Gutta 78     to     82 

Albane 16     to     14 

Fluavile 6     to      4 

Total 100          100 

Gutta-percha  is  made  of  a  mixture  of  hydrocarbons,  and  there 
is  usually  present  a  certain  amount  of  oxygen.  According  to 
Granville  H.  Sharpe,  F.C.S.,  its  ultimate  composition  is : 

Carbon 86.36 

Hydrogen 12.15 

Oxygen...  1.49 

Total 100. 

[Specific  gravity,  0.96285  to  0.99923.] 
The  primary  analysis  of  Gutta-percha  by  Sharpe  is : 

Hydrocarbon 79-7O 

Resin. 15.10 

Wood  fiber 2.18 

Water 2.50 

Ash 0.52 

Total . .  . .  100. 


CEMENT  COMPOUNDS.  245 

Obach  gives  the  following  average  results  from  a  large  num- 
ber of  analyses  of  each  of  twelve  leading  brands  or  sorts  of  Gutta- 
percha  : 

Gutta.  Resin.  Dirt.  Water. 

Pahang 78.1  19.2  1.5  1.2 

Banjerred 67.0  30.2  1.5  1.3 

Bulongan  red 68.6  29.0  1.4  i.o 

Bagan 57.5  40.9  i.o  0.6 

Goolie  red  soondie 55.2  42.9  1.2  0.7 

Serapong 56.2  42.4  0.9  0.2 

Bulongan  white. 52.2  45.4  1.5  0.9 

Mixed  white 49.8  47.4  i.i  1.7 

Banjer  white 51.8  44.1  1.8  2.3 

Sarawak  mixed 55.6  40.9  1.8  1,7 

Padang  reboiled 50.3  45.8  2.0  1.9 

Banca  rebelled 46.8  51.1  i.i  i.o 

Another  series  of  analyses  by  Obach  relates  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  resins  in  Gutta-percha,  as  follows: 

Albane.  Fluavile. 

Carbon 78.76  80.79 

Hydrogen 10.58  n.oo 

Oxygen 10.46  8.21 

Total 100.  100. 

Some  typical  Gutta-percha  cement  compounds  follow: 

i. — For  joining  wood:  Gutta-percha,  n  pounds;  shellac,  3 
pounds;  Venice  turpentine,  5  pounds;  pitch,  i  pound. 

2. — For  uniting  metals,  glass,  stone,  and  earthenware :  Gutta- 
percha,  45  pounds;  shellac,  20  pounds;  gum  mastic,  5  pounds; 
oxide  of  lead,  J  pound ;  storax,  3  pounds ;  Venice  turpentine,  26^ 
pounds. 

3. — For  cementing  leather :  Gutta-percha,  4  ounces ;  bisul- 
phide of  carbon,  20  ounces;  asphaltum,  i  ounce;  common  resin, 
i  ounce. 

4. — Gutta-percha  glue:  Gutta-percha,  i  pound;  rosin,  i 
pound;  litharge,  i  ounce;  powdered  glass,  quantum  sufficit. 

5- — Shoemaker's  wax:  Melt  Gutta-percha,  20  ounces;  add 
pitch,  58  ounces;  soap,  5  ounces;  rosin,  6  ounces;  beeswax,  5 
ounces ;  palm  oil,  i  ounce ;  tallow,  5  ounces. 

6. — For  preserving  metals  and  other  surfaces:  Coal  tar,  20 
pounds;  Gutta-percha,  5  pounds;  minium,  6  pounds;  white  lead, 
7  pounds;  pitch,  10  pounds;  resin,  10  pounds;  spirit  turpentine, 
4  pounds ;  sulphur,  38  pounds. 


246  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

7. — General  cement:  Make  a  solution  of  Balata  of  5  ounces 
in  J  gallon  naphtha,  and  another  of  Gutta-percha  5  ounces  in  J 
gallon  naphtha.  Combine  the  two  solutions  and  add  13  ounces 
resin  or  pitch  and  stir  and  mix  thoroughly. 

THE  ANALYSIS  OF  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

THIS  of  course  refers  to  the  analysis  for  the  crude  gum,  and, 
to  have  the  analysis  complete,  it  should  cover  the  amount  of  water 
present,  the  amount  of  foreign  matters  and  impurities,  the  amount 
of  ash,  the  amount  of  pure  gutta,  and  the  amount  of  resins. 

The  water  is  easily  determined  by  heating  a  known  weight 
from  the  sample  at  a  temperature  ranging  from  212°  to  230°  F., 
the  loss  in  weight  being  the  amount  of  water  present.  This  is  a 
common  process  in  chemical  analysis.  In  the  case  of  Gutta-per- 
cha, it  must  be  varied,  as  the  sample  is  liable  to  oxidize  even  under 
examination  causing  an  increase  of  weight.  This  is  overcome  by 
conducting  the  heating  in  a  slow  current  of  nitrogen,  or  carbonic 
acid  gas. 

J.  A.  Montpellier  devised  an  apparatus  for  this,  which  consist- 
ed of  a  special  retort  with  a  large  opening  which  he  used  as  a  va- 
por bath  and  having  a  tubulure  at  its  side.  It  is  closed  by  a  large 
cork,  in  which  there  are  two  holes,  one  for  the  tube  which  is  to  in- 
troduce the  gas,  and  the  other  for  the  thermometer.  The  sample 
to  be  dried  is  placed  in  a  crucible  of  porcelain  or  platinum  sus- 
pended within  the  retort.  As  the  water  evaporates  it  is  borne  by 
the  current  of  gas  through  a  tube  inserted  in  the  side  tubulure,  and 
into  U-shaped  tubes,  containing  sulphuric  pumice,  which  retain 
it.  Further  on  the  U  tubes  are  connected  with  a  Liebig  tube  with 
five  bulbs  containing  pure  sulphuric  acid  preventing  the  entrance 
of  moist  air  after  the  apparatus  cools,  a  further  use  being  to  make 
it  possible  to  regulate  the  speed  of  the  current  of  gas. 

The  retort  is  immersed  in  an  oil  bath  heated  by  a  Bunsen 
burner.  If  carbonic  acid  is  used  it  is  obtained  by  the  action  of 
hydrochloric  acid  on  marble  chips  produced  in  a  Kipp  apparatus 
followed  by  wash  flasks,  the  first  of  which  contains  bicarbonate  of 
potassium  in  solution,  which  is  intended  to  stop  the  passage  of  any 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  the  second  containing  sulphuric  acid  at  150° 
to  thoroughly  dry  the  gas.  To  be  absolutely  sure  that  this  gas  is 


ANALYSIS.  247 

dry,  a  dessicator  filled  with  sulphuric  pumice  is  placed  between 
the  retort  and  the  second  wash  flask.  The  operation  of  drying  one 
gram  with  this  apparatus,  takes  6  or  7  hours.  The  determination 
of  the  amount  of  impurities  which  comes  next  may  be  effected 
very  easily,  by  using  M.  F.  Jean's  exhaust  apparatus.  A  small 
part  of  the  sample,  from  one-half  a  gram  to  a  gram,  is  weighed, 
cut  into  small  fragments,  put  in  a  filter,  the  weight  of  which  is 
known,  which  in  turn  is  placed  in  a  platinum  cone.  This  cone  is 
then  put  in  the  extension  of  the  apparatus;  this  extension  com- 
municates by  two  tubes  with  the  retort  containing  pure  chloro- 
form. A  condenser,  in  which  a  current  of  cold  water  constantly 
circulates  in  order  to  condense  the  chloroform  vapor,  is  placed 
at  the  upper  part  of  the  extension. 

The  retort  rests  on  a  sand-bath,  very  gently  heated  by  a  Bun- 
sen  burner.  Under  the  influence  of  the  slight  heat  the  chloroform 
evaporates,  passes  through  one  of  the  tubes,  and  drops  on  the  filter 
containing  the  Gutta-percha,  which  it  gradually  dissolves.  The 
solution,  passing  through  the  filter,  then  drips  into  the  retort 
through  the  second  tube. 

All  the  impurities  remaining  in  the  filter,  it  is  sufficient  to 
dry  and  weigh  the  filter  to  get  the  weight  of  the  foreign  matters, 
the  drying  should  be  done  in  the  apparatus  used  in  determining 
the  amount  of  water. 

The  next  process  is  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  ash. 
In  Gutta-percha  this  is  always  very  small,  as  mineral  matter  is 
almost  entirely  absent  from  it,  the  quantity  never  exceeding  one- 
half  of  i  per  cent.  The  amount  of  ash  is  determined  by  burning 
in  a  capsule  of  platinum  or  porcelain  a  known  weight  of  Gutta- 
percha. 

The  fourth  step  is  the  determination  of  the  amount  of  pure 
gutta,  and  of  the  resins.  Both  fluavile  and  alban  are  soluble  in 
absolute  alcohol  at  the  boiling  point,  and  as  pure  gutta  is  insolu- 
ble in  it,  this  is  a  very  ready  means  of  separation.  The  sample 
to  be  examined  is  cut  in  little  bits,  put  in  a  platinum  basket  which 
is  pierced  with  holes,  and  hung  in  a  retort  containing  the  alcohol. 
This  retort  is  heated  with  a  sand-bath  or  water  bath,  the  vapor 
of  the  alcohol  passing  through  a  Liebig  condenser  and  returning 
to  the  retort.  The  boiling  is  continued  for  5  or  6  hours,  with 


248  GUTTA-PERCHA. 

the  basket  immersed  in  the  alcohol.  It  is  then  raised  above  the 
liquid,  and  the  boiling  continued  for  5  or  6  hours  more.  The  lat- 
ter part  of  the  process  removes  the  last  traces  of  resin. 

The  boiling  operation  being  completed,  the  pure  gutta  to- 
gether with  the  impurities  remains  on  the  filter.  There  remains 
then  the  drying  of  the  filter  in  the  apparatus  used  in  determining 
the  amount  of  water  and  the  weighing  of  it.  The  loss  of  weight 
shown  by  the  Gutta-percha  corresponds  to  the  amount  of  resins 
increased  by  the  weight  of  the  water.  Subtracting  that  weight, 
which  has  already  been  determined,  the  weight  of  the  resins 
remains. 


INDEX. 


ABBA  rubber,        ...  26 

Abies  balsamea,             .        .  118 

Abyssinian  gutta,         .        .  29 

Accra  rubber,        .         .         .  18 

Acetate  of  lead,            .         .  60 

Acetic  acid,           .         .         .  150 

Achete  juice,         ...  43 

Achras  safiota,     ...  28 

Acid,  Acetic,        .        .         .  150 

Boracic,       .        .        .  153 

Carbolic,     .        .        .  154 

Chromic,     .         .        .  158 

Citric,          .        .        .  158 

Formic,       .         .        .  159 

Hydrochloric,     .         .  160 

Mimo-tannic,      .         .  160 

Muriatic,      .         .         160,  161 

Nitric,         .        .        .  161 

Oleic,           .        .        .  162 

Oxalic,         .        .        .  162 

Phenic,        .        .        .  154 

process  of  reclaiming 

rubber,     .        .        .  in 
Salicylic,     .         .         .  163 
Stearic,       .        .        .  164 
Sulphuric,  ...  165 
Tannic,  166 
Tartaric,      .         .         .  167 
Tungstic,    .        .         .  167 
Acids,  alkalies,  and  their  de- 
rivatives,         .         .  150 
"  Acme  "  reclaimed  rubber,  113 
Action  of  metals  on  rubber,  209 
Adamanta,    .         .         .         .  89,  115 
Addah  niggers,     .         .         .19 
A.  D.  R.  gum,               .         .  89 
African  rubbers,  List  of,      .  15 
Shrinkage  of,      .        .  212 
Agalmatolite,        ...  60 
Air-brake  hose,  Testing,      .  216 
Albane,          ....  229 
Alcohol  as  a  solvent,    .        .  183 
Methylated,         .         .  188 

Ale, 150 

Alexite,          ....  99 

Algin  gum,  ....  89 

Alkalies  and  their  derivaties,  150 

Allard's  fireproof  felt,          .  203 

Almeidina  rubber,        .         .  28 

Alstonia  plumosa,         .         .  32 


Alum,             ....  151 
cure,    ....  53 
in  coagulation,   .        .  44 
Alumina  as  a  filler,      .        .  61 
Sulphate  of,        .        .  164 
Aluminum  lanolate,     .        .  168 
Oxide  of,     .         .         .  74 
Amazonian  resin  rubber,     .  27 
Amber,          . '       .        .        .  115 
Burmite,     .        .'       .  118 
Oil  of,        '.        .        ,  177 
Ambriz  rubber,     .        .  20 
Ambroin,       .         .        .        „  99 
Ammonia,     .        .        .        .  151 
Carbonate  of,     .        .  154 
Caustic,       .        .         .  156 
Hydrochlorate  of,       .  159 
Muriate  of,          .       •  *  160 
Tungstate  of,      .        .  167 
Ammonium,  Chloride  of,    .  157 
Amorphous  sulphur,             .  54 
Analyses  of  oil  substitutes,  88 
Analysis  of  Gutta-percha,   244,  246 
lamp  black,         .        .  140 
rubber  compounds,    .  222 
rubber  substitutes,     224,  226 
vulcanized  rubber,      215,  227 
Angostura  rubber,        .        .  12 
Anhydrite,    ....  61 
Anhydrous  paraffine  oil,       .  168 
Aniline,         ....  152 
colors,          .        .        136,  197 
Anilines  in  coloring  rubber,  135 
to  be  avoided,     .        .  136 
Animal  charcoal,          .        .  66 
oils    in    rubber  com- 
pounds,   .        .        .  168 
substances  in  dry  mix- 
ing,          ...  85 
Anthracine,           .        .        .  184 
Antimony,    ....  60 
Black,          ...  63 
Crimson  sulphide  of,  145 
Golden  sulphuret  of,  56 
in  curing  rubber,        .  50 
Iodide  of,    .         .        .  160 
Oxide  of,     .         .         .  75 
Penta-sulphide  of,  58 
Anti-poison  act,  German,  .  138 
' '  Apo  elasticon  hyphasma, "  105 


249 


250 


INDEX. 


Armalac,       .... 
Arsenate  of  potash,     . 
Arsenic  as  a  filler, 

yellow, 

Artemisia  absinthium, 
Artificial  asphalt, 

elatente,     . 

Gutta-percha, 

India-rubber  (Fenton's), 

rubber  milk, 

sulphuret  of  lead, 

whalebone, 
A  rtocarpus  incisa, 

Kunstleri, 
Aruwimi  rubber, 
Asbestic, 
Asbestine, 
Asbestonit, 
Asbestos, 
Ash,  Bone, 

test  of  rubber  substi- 
tutes, 
Asphalt, 

Trinidad,    . 

Assam  rubber,      .        .    '    . 
Assinee  rubber,    .        .        . 
Astrictum,    .... 
"  Atalanta"  reclaimed  rubber, 
Atmoid,         .        . 
Attalea  excelsa,    . 
Attoaboa  rubber, 
Aurelian  yellow, 
Australian  caoutchonc, 
Auvergne  bitumen,      .        . 
Axim  rubber, 
Ayling's  cold  cure, 

BAKA  gum,    . 

Balata,  .... 

as    a    substitute     for 
Gutta-percha, 

tree 

Balenite,        .... 
Ball,  African, 
Balloons,  dyeing 

Rubber,  hand  filled   . 
Balsam,          .... 

Canada, 

of  storax,    . 

of  sulphur, 

Sulphur, 

Tolu,    . 

Balsams   in     rubber    com- 
pounding, 
Banana  rubber,    . 
Bangui  rubber, 
Banigan's  (Joseph)    experi- 
ments,     .         .        , 
Barberry  yellow, 


99  Barium  chloride,           .         .  152 

152                    sulphide,              .        .  54 

6 1  Barta-Balli  gum,           .        .  32 
147  Baryta,  Carbonate  of,  .         .  65 
177  Barytes  as  a  filler,        .        .  63 
116  Baschnagel's  devulcanizing 

89  process,   .        .        .  no 

90  Bastard  or  pseudo  gums,     .  27 
92  Batanga  ball,        .        .        .  19 

209  Bathurst  rubber,  .        .        .  18 

54,61  Bayin  rubber,       .       .-       ..  18 

99  Beeswax,       ,    .    .        .        .  117 

26  Beira  rubber,         .        .        .  26 

30  Bell  ( P.  Carter)  on  analyses 

20                       of  rubber,        .        .  222 

62  Belting,  rubber,  Tests  of,    .  221 
62  Benguella  rubber,        .        .  21 

105  Benin  ball  rubber,        .        ,  19 

62  Bonzol,          .        .        .,       .  184 
64  Benzole,         .        .        .        .  184 

Beverly  Rubber  Works,       .  no 

224  Beyligky's       devulcanizing 

115  process,  ,        .        .  112 
134  Biborate  of  soda,          .      ,.  153 

22  Bichromate  of  potash,         .  153 

18  Birch  bark  tar,      .        .        .  117 

105                    oil,       .        .                ^  168 

112  Biscuit  rubber,      .       ,.  '.-...•  17 

63  Bismuth  rubber  cure,  .        .  50 
43  Bisulphate  of  potash,  .        .  153 

1 8  Bisulphide  of  carbon, .        .  184 
147                    Substitute.       '  .       .,  185 

31  Bitite,    .        .        .        •        -  ioo 

116  Bitumen,       .        .        .        .  117 

19  Auvergne,  .        .       „  116 
51  Black  antimony,  .      .  .        .  63 

dye  for  rubber,  .         .  195 

25  German  substitute,    .  90 

27  hypo,  .        •       -        -  64,  141 
lead.    .        *        .        „  64 

235  Mineral,  ...  141 

235  Oak,  ....  142 

102  pigments  for  rubber,  141 

16  pitch,  .  ;  .  '  .  117 

138  Blacks,  Carbon,  .  .  .  141 

208  Blandite,  .  .->...'  90 

116  Bleaching  powder,  .  .  163 

118  Blown  oils,  .  ..  •  *  169 

116  Blue,  Chrome,  *  .  .  143 

116  Cobalt,  .  .  .  142 

59  Indigo,  ...  144 

134  Molybdenum,  .  .  143 

pigments,  .  .  .  142 

115  Prussian,  .  .  .  143 

26  Yale,   ....  142 

20  Boot  and  shoe  manufacture,  35 
Bolas  (Thomas)  on  shrink- 

51                        age  of  rubber,         .  211 

147  Bolivian  rubber,  .        .        .  12 


INDEX. 


251 


Bone  ash,      ....  64 

black,  .        .        .  64,  140 

naphtha,     .        .        .  187 

oil,       ....  169 

Boracic  acid,         .        .        .  153 

Borax, 153 

as  a  solvent,        .        .  185 

Bordeaux  turpentine,  .         .  191 
Bourn's  (A.  O.)  devulcaniz- 

ing  process,  .  .  in 
Brazilian  birdlime,  .  .  26 
Brimstone  gold,  .  r  .  56 
British  gum,  .  .  .  117 
Bromine  rubber  cure,  .  .  54 
Bronzed  appearance  on  rub- 
ber, .  .  .  ,  196 
Brooksite,  ....  100 
Brosium  galactodendron,  .  25 
Brown  pigments,  .  .  144 
Bucaramanguina,  ...  64 
Bumba  rubber,  .  .  .  21 
Burgundy  pitch,  .  .  .  117 
Burmite  amber,  .  .  .  118 
Burnt  umber,  .  .  .  .,'.  64 
Bussira  rubber,  .  .,-.  '  20 

Button  lac 118 

Buttons  rubber,    .         .        .17 

Butyrospermum  Par  kit,      .  30 

CADMIUM,  yellow,        .        »  147 

Calamine,      ,                 *        .  65 

Calcium,  white,    ...        .  65 

Calendering  rubber,     .         .    4^  47 

Calomel,        .         .         .        .  65 

Calotropus  giganteus,         .  32 

Cameroons  rubber,       .        ,  19 

Cameta  rubber,    .        .      ...  n 

Camphine,    ,'        ,        ,        .  185 

Camphor,     ,.        "...'•'      .  185 

oil,       .        .       ...        .  169 

Canada  balsam,    .        .        ,  118 

Candle  tar,   .        .        .        .  118 

Canoe  gums,          ...  33 

Canvas  sails,  Waterproofing,  203 

Caoutchine,  .         .         .         .  186 

Caoutchite,  ....  106 

Caoutchouc  aluta,        .        .  100 

Caoutchoucine,     .        .        .  186 

Caoutchouc  oil,     .        .        .  169 

Cape  Cattimandu,        .        ..  31 

Cape  Coast  rubber,      .        ,  18 

Carbonate  of  Ammonia,      .  154 

baryta,        .        .        .  65 

lead,    .        .       ...        .  65 

lime,    .        .        .        »  ,  65 

soda,   .        ,        .        .  155 

Carbon  blacks,      .        .        .  141 

Bisulphide  of,     .        ,  184 

Substitute,        .  185 


Carbon  Chloride  of,     . 

Carburet  of  iron, 

Carnauba  wax,      .        .       _^_  _ 

Cam  gum,     .        .        .       ,:;-r 

Carppdinus  sanceolatus,    .'.»    ' 

Carriage  cloth  manufacture, 

Carrol  gum,          , 

Cartagena  rubber, 

Casein,  .        .        ... 

Caseum,         .         .     "    .       -.„ 

Castillo  a  el  as  tic  a,          .        . 

Castor  oil,  % 

Catechu,        .        .        . 

Cativo  gum, 

Cattel's  process  for  deodori- 

zation, 

Cattimandu  gum, 
Caucho,         .... 
Caulbry's  rubber  cure, 
Caustic  ammonia, 
potash, 

soda,    .... 
Caviana  rubber,    . 
Ceara  rubber, 
Celluloid,       .... 

Potato, 

Cellulose,       .... 
Cement  manufacture.  . 

compounds,       Gutta- 
percha,     . 
Davy's  universal, 
Portland,    . 
Theskelon, 
Cements,  Rubber, 
Coloring,    . 

Centrifugal  method  of  coag- 
ulation,   . 
Central  American  rubber,  . 

Shrinkage  of, 

Ceramyl,        .... 
Cerasin, 
Ceresine, 

Ceylon  scrap  rubber,    . 
Chapel    (E.)  on    shrinkage 

of  rubber, 

Chalk  as  a  filler,  .        .        .65 
French,       .        .        , 
Red,    . 

Charcoal,  .... 
Chatterton's  compound,  100, 
Chemical  process  of  re- 
claiming rubber,  . 
Chemical  Rubber  Co.,  . 
Cherry  gum,  .  .  . 
Chicle  gum,  .  .  . ' 

China  clay,  .         ..        ^  .   ,  . 
Chloride,  Barium,        .       ,. 
Chloride  of  ammonium,      . 
calcium,      ,       .,        .% 


186 

65 

118 

119 

27 

38 

Qi 

14 

118 

118 

9 

169 

156 

29 

203 

30 

13 

53 

156 

156 

155 

n 

15 
"3 
103 

"3 


245 
130 
78 
109 
181 
136 

45 

13 

212 

119 


23 

212 

,83 

70 

80 

66 

239 

no 
III 

119 

28 

67 
152 
157 

157 


252 


INDEX. 


Chloride  carbon,  .        .        .  186 

lime,    ....  157 

sodium,       .        .        .  157 

sulphur  rubber  cure,  .  53,  55 

Chlorine,  Liquid,          .        .  57 

rubber  cure,        .        .  52 

Chloroform,          .        .        .  186 

Cholesterin,           .        .        .  170 

Christia  gum,        ...  91 

Chromic  acid,       .        .        .  158 

Chrome  blue,        .        .'••"•  143 

green,          .        .        .  '148 

yellow,         .         .         .  148 

Citric  acid,    .        .        .        .  158 

Clapp's  (E.  H.)  devlucani- 

zation  patents,        .  m 
Clay,  China,          ...  68 
Fire,    .        .        .        .  68 
Pipe,   ....  77 
Clothing  manufacture,  Rub- 
ber,         ....  38 
Coagulation  of  rubber,        .  43 
Coal,  Powdered,  .        .        .  79 
Coal  tar,        »."'-;»        •        .  "9 
naphtha,      »        .        .  189 
Cobalt,  Blue,        .        .        .  143 
Codliver  oil,          .        .        .  170 
Cod  oil,          .        .        ...  170 
Colcothar,     .        .        .        .  146 
Cold  curing  process,    .        .  51 
Colombian  rubber,       .        .  v  14 
Colophane,    .         .        .        .  119 
Colophony,  .        .        .        .  119 
Color  of  rubber,  Natural,    .  135 
Colored  design  for  proofed 

fabrics,    .        .        .  197 

Coloring  rubber,           .        .  135 

rubber  surfaces,          .  137 

Colors,  Black,       .        .        .  138 

Blue,   .                 .        .  142 

Brown,        .         .        .  144 

for    admixture    with 

rubber,     .        .        .  197 
Green,         .        .        .  148 
Red,    ....  144 
White,         ...  137 
Yellow,        .        .        .  146 
Colza  oil,       .        v  ,     .        .  170 
Compo,          ....  67 
Compounding  rubber,  Rea- 
sons for,  ...  60 
Compounds     for     shower- 
proofing,         .        .  199 
Kiel,    ....  102 
Kirrage,      .        .        .  107 
Sorrel's,       .         .         .  104 
Wray's,        .        .        .  105 
Congo  oil,     .        .        .        .  178 
rubber,        ...  20 


Consolidated  oil,  .  .  170 
Coorongite,  .  .  .  31,  119 
Copper,  Effect  of  on  rubber,  209 
Sulphate  of,  .  .  165 
Coralite,  ....  100 
Cork,  .  .  .  .  .  67 
Corkaline,  .  .  .  .  91 
Cork  leather,  .  .  .  106 
Cornite,  .  .  .  .  100 
Corn  oil,  .  .  .  .  170 
substitute,.  .  .  91 
Cornwall  clay,  .  .  .  67 
Coruudum,  .  *'  .  .  68 
Corypha  cerifera,  .  .  118 
Cost  of  rubber  after  shrink- 
age, .  .  .  213 
Cottonseed  oil,  .  .  .  170 
Cotton  gum,  .  .  .  113 
silicate,  .  k  ___...  80 
Cow  tree  rubber,  .  .  25 
Coyuntla  juice,  .  •  ''..«  44 
Crape  cloth,  »  .  .  202 
Cravenette  process,  .  ;..  199 
Cream  of  tartar,  .  .  .  158 
Creosote  oil,  .  .  170,  187 
Crimson  sulphide  of  anti- 
mony, .  .  i  145 
Crystals  of  soda,  .  .  159 
Cumai  rubber,  .  .  .  25 

Cutch 156 

Cyanide  of  potassium,        .  159 

DAMMAR,  Gum,     .        .        .  122 
Dankwerth's  Russian   sub- 
stitute,    .        .        .  91 
Davy's  universal  cement,    .  130 
Day,  Austin  G.,  rubber  sub- 
stitutes,      ...  46 
Day,  Horace  H.,  early  rub- 
ber manufacture,        .  51 
Deodorization  of  rubber,     .  85,  203 
Dental  rubber,      .        .        .  41 
Dermatine,    ...        .  106 
Dextrine,       .        .        .        .  119 
Dextrose,      .        .        .        .  120 
Diatite,          ....  100 
Diatomaceons  earth,             .  68 
Die  hop  sis  elhpttca        .         .  31 
Dichopsis  poly  ant  ha,    .        .  231 
Dieff enbach's  (George)  rub- 
ber cure,             .        .  50 
Dlppel's  oil,           ,        .        .  187 
Druggists'  sundries  manu- 
facture,      .        .        .  36 
Dry-heat  test  of  rubber  sub- 
stitutes,      .        .        ,  224 
Drying  oils  in  rubber  sub- 
stitutes,      ...  87 
Drying  rubber,     ...  46 


INDEX. 


Dry  mixing, 
Durango  rubber, 
Durate,          .... 
Dutch  Congo  ball, 
Dyera  costula, 

EARTH  wax,          .        .        . 

Earth  waxes  in  rubber  com- 
pounds, 

East  Indian  rubbers,    . 
Shrinkage  of, 

Eaton's  (A.  K.)  rubber  cure, 

Elasteine,      .        .        .     '•'',. 

Elastic  glue,          .        .        .  92, 

Elaterite,       .        .        ... 

Electric  facing,     .        .        . 

Electrose,      .... 

Elmer's   (William)    rubber 
cure,  , 

Embossing  rubher,       .        , 

Emery,          .        .  ^ 

Equateur  rubber,          .        . 

Esbenite,       .        .        .        . 

Esmeralda  rubber, 

Essence  of  petroleum, 

Ether  as  a  solvent, 

Eucaliptia,    .... 

Eucalyptus  globulus    . 

Eucalyptus  oil,     . 

Eucturbe  edulus, 

"Eureka"   reclaimed  rub- 
ber,     .... 

"  Excelsior"  reclaimed  rub- 
ber,     .... 

Extract  test  of  rubber  sub- 
stitutes,      .        .  '      * 

FALKE'S      (Oscar)      rubber 

cure,    .         .        .        . 
Farina,  .... 

Fastening  rubber  to  metal, 
Feldspar,  .... 
Fen  ton's  artificial  rubber,  . 
Fiber,  Lamina,  . 

Vulcanized, 

Fibers  in  rubber  mixing,  . 
Fibrine-christia  gum,  .  '. 
Fibrone,  , 

Fichtelit,  .... 
Ficus  elastica, 

obligua, 

Vogelzi, 

Fillers  in  dry  mixing, 
Fire  clay,       .... 
Fish  glue,      .... 

oil,       .... 
Flake  rubber, 

Flint, 

Flour  of  glass,     . 


60  Flour  glass,  phosphate,       .  69 

26  Wheat,         ...  82 
106  Fluoride  of  silicon,      .        .  159 

20  Fluviagum,          .         .        .  27,  33 

27  Formic  acid,          .        .        .  159 
For steroma  gracilis,    .        .  31 

120  Fossil  farina,  .  .  .  69 

meal,  ,  .  70 

115  Frankenberg's  waterproof 

22  cloth,  .  •„  .  203 

212  French  asphalte.  .  .  120 

50  chalk,           .        .        .  26 

91  Congo  rubber.    .        .  19 
1 20  Gutta-percha,     .        .  92 
1 20  Navy  tests  of  rubber 

68  belting,    .         .        .  221 

100  talc,     ....  82 
wool  grease,        .         .  172 

53  Frost  rubber,        .         .        .  106 

196  Fuller's  earth,       ...  70 
68 

20  GABOON  rubber,    ...  19 

13  Gambia  rubber,    ,         .         .  18 

14  Gamboge,  Yellow,        .        .  147 
171  Gambria  gum,       ...  27 
187  Garnet  lac:    ....  121 
171  Garnier's  (Edmond)    alum 

171  cure,            .        .        .53 

171  Gas,  Effect  of  on  rubber,    .  207 

43  obtained  from  rubber,  207 
tubing,    manufacture 

112  of,    ....  208 
Gasoline,       .         .        .        .  188 

113  Gilsonite,       .        .        .        .  121 
Glass,  Soluble,      ...  164 

224  Glucose,         .        ...  121 

Glue, 121 

Waterproof,        .        .  99 

52  Glugl  oss-gelatine,        .        .  121 

68  Gluten,          .        .        .        .  122 

206  Glycerine  in   rubber    com- 

68  pounds,       .        .        .  172 

92  Goa  gum,      ....  31 
102  Gold  brimstone,   .        ...       .  56 
104  Gold  Coast  rubber,       .        .  18 

84  Gold  leaf  applied  to  rubber,  196 

106  Gold,  Oxide  of,     ...  75 

101  Golden  sulphuret   of    anti- 

120  mony,          .        .        .  56 

10  Golf  balls,     ....  238 

25  Goodyear  (Charles)  vulcani- 

26  zation  process,    .         .  49 
60  triple  compound,        .  84 

69  Gossypium  herbaceum  .  170 
120  Grades  of  crude  rubber,      .  9 
171  Grand  Bassam  rubber,  18 

17  Graphite,       ....  70 

69  Green,  Chrome     .        .        .  148 

69  dyes  for  rubber,          .  195 


254 


INDEX. 


Green,  Chrome  Gutta-percha  235 

pigments,    .        .  .  148 

ultramarine,        .  .  149 

Greytown  rubber,        .  .  14 

Guatemala  rubber,        .  .  14 

Guayaquil  strip  rubber,  .  14 

Gum  ammoniacum,      .  .  122 

anime,         .        .  .  122 

arabic,         .        .  .  122 

asphaltum,         V  •  I23 

benzoin,      »        .  «  122 

camphor,     .         .  ;  122 

chicle,         .        v  .  28 

copal,           .        v  .  122 

dammar,     .        .  .  122 

elemi,          .        .  .  124 

euphorbium,       .  .  124 

fibrine,        . .       .  ^  92 

frankincense,     *  *  124 

gamboge,    .        .  .  124 

gambria,     .        «  .  27 

goa,     .        .        .  .  31 

juniper,       .        .  .  135 

Kauri,          .        .  .  126 

lac,      .        ..       .  .  125 

lini,     .        .        .  .  124 

Manila,        .        .  .  126 

olibanum,    .        .  .  125 

Spruce,       V:.  .  132 

thus 125 

tragacanth,         .  .  124 
tragasol,      .        .  .  125 
turpentine,          .  .  125 
Winthrop,  .        .  .  •       99 
Xanthorrhea      *  ;  134 
Gums  used   in  rubber  com- 
pounds,      .        .  •  IJ5 
Gun  cotton,        '  .        «..  .  113 
Gutta  Bassai,         .        .  .  30 
Gutta-grek,  .        .        .  .  29 
Gutta  Horfoot,      .        .  \  30 
Guttaline,      .        .        .  .  92 
Gutta-percha,  Chapter  on,  .  228 
Analyses  of,     .  229,  244,  246 
"  Banjermassin,"  .  229 
Brooman's  patents,  ,  233 
cement  compounds,  .  245 
Chemical        cleaning 

of,  .  .  .  232,  234 
Commercial  classifi- 
cation of,  .  .  229 
Components  of,  .  229 
Deodorization  of,  .  208 
Deterioration  of,  .  239 
Dick's  compounds,  .  241 
Effect  of  heat  on,  .  228 
extracted  from  leaves,  235 
Grades  of,  .  .  230,  231 
Green,  .  .  .  235 


Gutta-percha,    Chapter  on, 
Hancock's     com- 
pounds,   .        .        240,  243 

Hancock's      patents,  232 

hardened  chemically,  234 

in  compounds,    .        .  239 

in  golf  balls,       .        .  238 

in  insulation,      .        .  237 

Liquid,        .        .        .  241 

"Macassar"       .        .  229 

masticator,           .         .  233 
Mechanical    cleaning 

of,    .         .        .        .  232 
mixing  machine,         .  233 
Montpellier's  appara- 
tus for  analyzing,    .  246 
Obach's  analyses  of,  .  245 
Payen's  analysis  of,  .  229 
percentages  of  waste.  233 
Properties  of,     ,        .  228 
Reboiled,    .         .        „  230 
Resins  in,    .        .        ,  229 
slicing  machine,         .  232 
Smith's  compound     .  239 
Sources  of  .        .        .  229 
Specific  gravity  of,     .  235 
Substitutes  for,          .  87 
Natural,     .  235 
"Sumatra"        .         .  229 
Uses  for,     .        .        .  236 
Vulcanization  of        .  52,  241 
White,         .        .        .  230 
Gutta-shea,    .        .        .        .  130 
Gutta-sundek,       .        .        .  232 
Gutta-susu,    .        .        .  23 
Gutta-trap,    .        .                 .  •        30 
Gypsum,        .        .        .        .  •       70 


HALF  JACK  rubber,       .        .  18 
Hall's  ( Hiram  L.)    devulcan- 

izing  patents,      .         .  no 
Hancock's  Gutta-percha  pat- 
ents,    .        .        .        232,  234 
Hard  rubber,         .        .        -.  99 
Decoration  of     .-       »  195 
manufacture,      .        .  '  41 
Substitutes  for   .         .  99 
Harris's    (Charles  T.)  rub- 
ber cure,     .        .     / .  50 
Hatchetine    ....  127 
Havemann's    ( R.     F.    H.) 

rubber  cure,        .         .  52 

Heat  in  coagulation     .         .  45 

Helenite,        ....  125 

Heifer  process  of  coagulation  45 
Helm's  (John  Jr.)    rubber 

cure     ....  52 

Hematite,  Red,    ...  145 


INDEX. 


255 


Henriques  (Dr.    Rob.)    an- 
alyses of  rubber  sub- 
stitutes,      .        .        .  226 
Testing  rubber        .  222 
Heptane,       .                         .188 
Hermizing  process,               .  51 
Hevea  Brasihensis,              .  9,  12 
discolor,    .                 .12 
Heveenite,    .         .                  .  107 
Heveenoid    .         .                  .  106 
Honduras  strip  rubber         .  15 
Honeycomb  sulphur,            .  57 
Hose,  air-brake,  Tests  of,    .  216 

Hyaline 101 

Hydrochlorate  of  ammonia,  159 

Hydrochloric  acid,       .        .  160 

Hydrochlorite  of  lime,         .  159 

Hydrogen,  Peroxide  of,       .  162 

Hydrosulphuret  of  lime,     .  159 

IDRIALIN-!DRIALIT,        .       >,  125 

Indian  red,    ....  145 

India-rubber  compounds,    .  60 

leather,    .        .  107 

Infusorial  earth,            .        ,  70 

Insulac,         .        >'-'•»"•'     *'  101 

Insulated  wire  manufacture,  40 

Iodide  of  antimony,     .        .  160 

zinc,      .         .        .  160 

Iodine,           ,     >  .        .        .  57 

Ipomoea  bona-nox,       ,  •      .  44 

Iron  pyrites,         '.        .        .  71 

Isinglass,       .         .•        .        .  125 

Islands  rubber,  ,  .    .     .        .  .       n 

Isolacit,         .'        .        ...        .  101 

Isolatine,       .        .':...  101 

Isoprene,        .       .*        .       ...  188 

Itaituba  rubber,    .         .         .  12 

APAN  wax,            .        .         .  173 
ava  rubber,          ...  23 
elly,  Petroleum,           .         .  178 
elutong,       ....  27,  33 
enkins's  valve  packing,      .  71 
Jeve  rubber,           ...  25 
Jintawan  rubber,           .         .  32 
Joselyn's  (Henry  W.)    rub- 
ber cure,      ,        .        .  50 

KAMERUN  rubber,          .         .  19 

Kamptulicon,        .         .        .  107 

Kassai  rubber        ...  20 

Kauri  gum,    .         .         .         .  126 

Kelgum,         ....  93 

Keratite,         ....  102 

Keratol,          ....  102 

Kermes,          .         .         .         .  71 

Kickxia  Africana,        .         .  10 

Kiel  compounds,            .         .  102 


Kirrage  compound, 
Kommoid,     . 
Kwilu  rubber, 
Kyanized  cloth  process, 


LAC,  . 
Lactitis, 
Lagos  oil,  .  ,  .  , 

rubber, 

Lahou  rubber       .        ., 
Lake  Leopold  rubber, 
Lakes  for  coloring  rubber, 
Lallemantia  oil,    .         . 
Lamina  fiber, 
Lampblack,  Analysis  of, 

for  coloring  rubber 
Lamu  ball  rnbber, 
Landolphia,          .  /      . 
Lanichol, 
Lanoline,       . 
Lard  oil, 

Lavender,  Oil  of,. 
Lavandula  vera, 
Lead,  Black, 

Blue    . 

Carbonate  of, 

Hydrosulphite  of, 

Sublimed,    . 

Sugar  of, 

Sulphide  of, 

White, 

Leatherine,  .         . 

Leatheroid,  .        .   .     . 
Lemon,  Oil  of,      . 
Liberian  rubber,  , 

Ligroin, 
Lime  as  a  filler,  .  ,  . 

Carbonate  of, 

Chloride  of, 

Hydrochlorite  of, 

Hydrosulphuret  of, 

in  coagulation, 

Juice, 

Quick, 

Slaked, 

Limeite,         .         «        . 
Linoxin,        .        .        . 
Linseed  oil, 
Linum  usitatissimum, 
Liquid  chlorine,    . 
Liquor  of  flint, 
Litharge, 
Lithargite,    . 
Litho-carbon, 
Lithographic  varnish, 
Lithophone, 
Little  known  rubbers, 
Liver  of  sulphur, 

rubber, 


107 
93 

21 

2O2 

126 

102 

I78 

19 

18 

20 
197 

173 
104 
140 
139 

21 

9,16 

173 

173 

174 

176 

176 

64 

64 

65 

57 

Si 

164 

141 

83 
107 
103 
176 

18 
188 

7i 

65 
157 
159 
159 

44 

44 
163 

81 
107 

93 
174 
174 

56 
160 

72 

73 
126 

175 

139 
24 
58 

21 


256 


INDEX. 


Liverpool  pressed  rubber,   .  16 

Loan  da  rubber,     .         .         .  21 

Loango  rubber,    .        .        .  19 

Lomi  rubber,        .        .        .  19 

Lopori  rubber,      ...  20 

Lugo  rubber,         ...  94 

Lump  rubber,       .        .        .  17 

MABOA  gum,  ,  .  .  26 
Machacon  juice,  ...  44 
Machine  for  testing  air- 
brake hose,  ,  .  216 
Machine  for  testing  vulcan- 
ized rubber,  .  .  217 
Mackintosh  manufacture,  .  38 
Macwarrieballi  gum,  .  .  31 
Madagascar  rubber  .  .  21 
Madanite,  .  .  .  .  108 
Madeira  rubber,  .  .  ..  12 
Maize  oil,  .  .  "  .  .  170 
Majunga  rubber,  .  .  21 
Male  rubber  tree,  '.  ,  .  28 
Manaos  rubber,  .  .  .  12 
Mandarnva  rubber,  .  .  26 
Mangabeira  rubber,  .•  .  15 
Manga-ice  rubber,  .  .  26 
Manganated  linseed  oil,  .  175 
Manganese,  ....  73 
Peroxide  of,  .  ,  76 
Mangegatu  gum,  .  ...  .  32 
Manila  gum,  .  .  .  126 
Man  oh  twist  rubber,  .  .  18 
Maponite,  ....  94 
Marble  flour,  ,  73 
Marcy's  (E.  E.)  rubber 

cure,  .  .  .49,  50,  51 
Marloid,  ....  103 
Massaranduba  rubber,  .  26 
Massisot,  ,  73 
Mastic,  .  .  .  .  126 
Mattograsso  rubber,  .  .  .  .-  13 
Mayumba  rubber,  .  .  19 
Mayall's  (  Thomas  J.)  rub- 
ber cure,  .  .  .  112 
Mechanical  rubber  goods 

manufacture,      .        .  34 

Menthol,        .        .        .        .  126 

Metal,  Fastening  rubber  to,  206 

Metallined  rubber,        .        .  108 

Metals,  action  of  rubber  on,  209 

Methane,  188 

Methylated  alcohol,      .        .  188 

Mexican  rubber,  .        .        .  16 
Meyers's  vulcanizing  process,       52 

Mica, 73 

Micanite 103 

Milk  of  sulphur,           .         .  58 

Milling  rubber,     ...  47 

Mimo-tannic  acid,         .        .  160 


Mineral  India-rubber  asphalt  127 

Orange,       ...  74 

tallow,         *.       .        .  127 

wax,    .         .         .         .  127 

wool,    .         .        .        .  74 

Minium,    ,..'•.         .  74 

Mirbane  oil,          .         .         .  175 

Mitchell's  (  N.  C.)    rubber 

reclaiming  patents,    .  in 

Mixing  rubber,     ...  47 

Mold  work,  ....  40 
Moist  heat  tests  of  rubber 

substitutes,      .  .        .  224 

Mollendo  rubber,          .      ;. '.  12 

Molybdenum  blue,       .        .  143 

Mongalla  rubber,       •   ;  20 

Moroccoline,          .        .        .  180 

Mountain  flour      ...  74 

Mozambique  rubber,     .        .  21 

Mudar  gum,          .        .        7"'  32 

Mule  gum,     .        .        .        «  33 
Mullee     (William)    in     the 

hard  rubber  industry,  52 
Muriate  of  ammonia,  .  .  160 
Muriatic  acid,  161 
Murphy's  (John)  use  of  sul- 
phur for  Gutta-percha,  5  2 
Musa  rubber,  .  .  .  26 
Mustard  oil,  >  ,  .  175 
Myrole,  .  .  .  .  127 

NAPHTHALINE,       .        .        .        191 

Naphthas  as  solvents,  .        .         189 

Natural  pitch,       .        .        •-        127 

Neen  rubber,         ...          33 

Newbrough's  (Dr.  J.  A.) 
vulcanizing  com- 
pound. .  .  .  51 

Nicaragua  rubber, 

Niger  rubbers,      .         .        . 

Niggers  (crude  rubber), 

17,  18,  19, 

Nigrite,          .        .        . 

Nigrum  elasticum, 

Nipafructicans,  .        .        . 

Nipa  salt,       .         . 

Nitric  acid,    .         . 

Nitrobenzol,  .         . 

Nitro-cellulose,     .        .        .' 

Notions  in  rubber,        . 

Novelty  rubber,  .        . 

Nutgall,         .... 

Nuts  (crude  rubber),    . 


14 
19 

21,  22 

103 

94 

44 

44 

161 

191 

114 

42 

94 
161 

17 


OBACH'S  (Dr.  Eugene)  clas- 
sification   of      Gutta- 
percha, 
Chemical  cleaning  of 

Gutta-percha, 
green  Gutta-percha,   . 


230 

234 
235 


INDEX. 


257 


Ochre,  Red, 

145 

Old  Calabar  rubber,     . 

19 

Yellow, 

147 

Oleargum,     .... 

177 

Oil,Anhydrons  paraffine,     . 

168 

Oleic  acid,     .... 

162 

Birch, 

168 

Oleo  resins,  .... 

127 

Bone, 

169 

Oleum  succini, 

177 

Camphor,    . 

169 

Olive  oil  

177 

Caoutchouc, 

169 

Orange  ball  rubber, 

21 

Castor, 

169 

mineral,       .-        .        . 

74 

Cod,    .... 

170 

vermilion,  .         , 

145 

Codliver,     . 

170 

Origanum  oil, 

177 

Colza, 

170 

Orinoco  rubber,    .     '    .        . 

13 

Congo, 

178 

Orpiment, 

148 

Consolidated,      .        • 

170 

Orris  oil,        .         .        .        . 

176 

Corn, 

170 

Oxolate  of  lime,   . 

162 

Cottonseed,        '.        . 

170 

Oxolin, 

94 

Creosote,             , 

171 

Oxide  of  aluminum,     . 

74 

Dippel's, 

187 

antimony,    . 

75 

Eucalyptus, 

171 

gold,    .... 

75 

Fish     .... 

171 

iron,  Red,    .         .        , 

145 

Lagos,        .        .        .    ; 

178 

lead,     .... 

75 

Lallemantia, 

173 

tin, 

75 

Lard,  .        .        .        . 

174 

zinc,    .         .        .        .75, 

137 

Linseed,      •    /  •. 

174 

Oxychloride  of  lead,    . 

75 

Maize,          .         . 

170 

Oysters  (crude  rubber), 

17 

Manganated  linseed, 

174 

Ozocerine,     .... 

128 

Mirbane, 

175 

Ozocerite,      .... 

128 

Mustard, 

175 

Olive, 

177 

PAGODITE, 

76 

Orizanum, 

177 

Pala  gum,     .         .-*...' 

Palm,           .        . 

177 

Palm  oil,        .        . 

177 

Paraffine,    .        .        . 

178 

Panama  rubber,    . 

15 

Petroleum,          .        .  , 

178 

Pantasote,     . 

108 

Poppyseed, 

178 

Para  rubber  grades, 

10 

Rapeseed,            ; 

179 

Shrinkage  of,  . 

211 

Rock,           .        .        . 

178 

Paraffine, 

128 

Rosin,          .        . 

179 

oil,       .        .        ... 

I78 

Russian  mineral, 

179 

Paris  white  .         .         .         . 

76 

Shale, 

179 

Parkesine,     .... 

94 

substitutes  analysed, 

188 

Parkes's  cold  cure, 

53 

Vulcanized, 

1  80 

Parmelee's       '  '  hermizing  " 

Walnut, 

1  80 

process, 

51 

White  drying,     . 

180 

Paste  rubbers,      .        .       17,  1  8 

,  19 

of  amber,    . 

177 

Pay  en's  analysis  of  Gutta- 

lavender, 

I76 

percha,        .        .        . 

229 

lemon,    . 

176 

Pedryoid,      .         ».        .        ., 

108 

orris, 

176 

Pegamoid,     .        .        . 

103 

peppermint,   . 

176 

Penang  rubber,     . 

23 

rosemary, 

176 

Pentane,        .... 

192 

tar, 

176 

Penta-sulphide      of     Anti- 

thyme,   . 

177 

mony, 

58 

turpentine,     . 

191 

Peppermint,  Oil  of, 

176 

vitriol,    . 

162 

Perchoid,       .... 

95 

wormwood,    . 

177 

Permanganate  of  Potash,    . 

16* 

Oils,  Blown, 

169 

Permambuco  rubber,   . 

15 

Creosote,     . 

187 

Peroxide  of  hydrogen, 

used  in  rubber  com- 

iron,    .... 

I4c 

pounds    and     solu- 

lead,   .... 

76 

tions, 

168 

manganese, 

76 

Okonite,         .... 

108 

substitutes, 

INDEX. 


Petrifite,        ....  76 

Petrolatum,           .         .         •  178 

Petroleum  as  a  solvent,        .  192 

Essence  of,          .        .  171 

jelly,    .         .        .        .  178 

naphtha,     ;.       '.        ,  190 
oil,       .        .."."•»  178 
paraffine,     .        .        .  178 
Phosphate,  Flour  of,    .        .  69 
of  lime,        .  '     -.."'•  .  76 
of  soda,        .        .        .  163 
Phosphoric  acid,  .        .        ,  163 
Phosphorus,          .       \',     V  77 
Physical  tests    of    vulcan- 
ized rubber,         .        .  215 
Pickeum  gum,      ...  33 
substitute,           .        .  95 
Pigments  for  coloring  rub- 
ber,     .        .        .        .  135 

Pipeclay,      .        ...  77 

Pitch,    .         .        .        . .  •  -   ...  129 

Black,          .        .        .  117 

Burgundy,           .        .  117 

Natural,       .        .        .  127 

Plaster  of  Paris,  .        .        .  78 

Plasters,  Ingredients  of,      .  86 

Rubber,          .         .  42 

Plasticon,      .        .        ;        .  103 

Plastite,         .        .        .        .  103 

Plumbagine,          .        .  78 

Plumbago,    ....  78 

Pneumatic     tire     manufac- 
ture,   .        .        .  39 
4 '  Pongo  "  reclaimed  rubber,  112 
Pontianak,    ....  27 

Poppenhusen's    (C.)  use  of 

rubber  scrap,      .        .  in 

Poppyseed  oil.      .         .         .  178 

Portland  cement,          .       ,'.  .  78 

Potash,          .        .        .        .  163 

Arsenateof,         .         .  152 

Bichromate  of,   .         .  153 

Bisulphate  of,     .         .  153 

Caustic,       .        .        .  156 

Potassium,  Cyanide  of,        .  159 

Potato  celluloid,            .        .  103 

Powder,  Bleaching,      .        .  153 

Powdered  coal,     ,  79 

Preservation      of      rubber 

goods,          .        .        .  205 

Presspahm,  .       .....      '.  104 

Prince's  metallic  paint,        .  145 
Processes  in  coloring  rub- 
ber,     .        .        .        .  135 

Proofing  business.         .         .  38 

Prussian  blue,       .         .         .  143 

Pumice  stone,       .        V        .  79 

Purcellite,     .        .        .        .  95 

Purple  dyes  for  rubber,        .  195 


Puzzalona.     .... 

Pyrites,  Iron. 

Pyroxiline,    .... 

QUICK  lime,          .        .  •  ".."» '.'..• 

RANGOON  rubber,          .        . 

Rapeseed  oil,        .        .        . 

Rathite,         .        .'      .        ; 

Reclaimed  rubber,        .        .  42 

Red  chalk,    .... 
hematite, 
Indian, 

lead,    .... 
ochre, 

oxide  of  iron, 
pigments,    .        >  .      . 
Venetian,    . 

Reinhardt's  analysis  of  rub- 
ber,     .... 

Rennet,         ..        . 

Resin,  Adamanta, 

Resinolines, 

Resins  contained  in  rubber, 
in  rubber  compound- 
ing,         .        .         115, 
Oleo,    .... 

Retin  asphalt, 

Retinite,        .        . 

Rhigolene,     .... 

Richard's  (Albert  C.)  rub- 
ber cure,      .         . 

Rider    (John)     on     Gutta- 
percha  vulcanization, 

Root  rubber,         :       Y 

Rosaline,       .        .    ,.  + 

Rosemary,  Oil  of,        .        , 

Rosin.    .        .        . 

oil 

Rotten  stone,        .        .        . 

Rubberaid,    .        .        .        ; 

Rubberic,      .        . 

Rubberite,     .... 

Rubber  milk,  Artificial, 
Velvet,      '* .        . 

Ruberine,      .        .        ... 

Ruberoid,      .         .       • .. 

Russian  mineral  oil,     . 

Russian  substitute, 
Dankwerth's, 

SAL  AMMONIAC,    .        . 
Saleratus,      .         .        • 
Salicylic  acid,       .        .        , 
Sal  soda,       .        ,        .        .' 
Salt,       . 

in  coagulation,   . 
Saltpeter,       ... 
Saltpond  rubber, 


79 

7i 

114 

163 

23 
179 
108 
,109 

80 
145 
145 

80 
145 
145 
144 

145 

225 
163 
"5 
96 
182 

130 
127 
130 
130 
193 

50 

52 

26 

96 

176 

130 

179 

80 

97 

108 

96 

209 

T08 

96 
96 
179 

97 


164 

164 
163 
164 
164 

44 
164 

19 


INDEX. 


259 


Sandarac,  .  .  .  .  131 
Sapium  biglandulosum,  .  29 
Sausage  (crude  rubber),  .  21 
Sawdust  as  a  filler,  .  .  85 
Seed  lac,  ....  13 
Selenium,  .  .  .  51,  53,  80 
Shale  oil,  ,  .  .  .  179 
Shellac,  .  .  .  .  131 
Shrinkage  of  rubber,  .  .  211 
Sieba  gum,  ....  33 
Siemens  (Dr.  Werner  von), 
pioneer  in  Gutta- 
percha,  .  .  .  .  237 
Sierra  Leone  rubber,  .  .  18 
Silex,  .  ...  .  80 
Silica,  .  ....  80 
Silicate,  cotton  .  .  .  80 
of  soda,  .  .  .  164 
Silicon,  Fluoride  of,  .  .  159 
Simpson's  (E.  L.)  rubber 

cure     .        .        .  51 

Sinapsis  ntgra,     .        .        .  175 
Szphocampylos    Jamesonia- 

nus,     .        .        .        .  25 

Size,       ,        ...        .  80 

Slag  wool,     .        .      y  .        .  80 

Slaked  lime,          .        .        .  81 

Slate,     ,        .        .        .        .  81 

Sludge,          .        .        .        .  179 

oil  resin,     .        .        .  133 

Smalts,           .        .        .        .  143 
Smith    (Willoughby)      on 

Gutta-percha,     .        .  105 

Smoking  rubber,          .        .  43 

Soap  in  coagulation,     .        .  45 

Substitutes,         .        .  99 

Soaps,   .        .        .        .        .  165 

Soda,     .        .        .                 .  164 

Carbonate  of,      .        .  155 

Caustic,       .         .        .  155 

Crystals  of,          .   i .'.•.„•  159 

Phosphate  of,     .        .  163 

Sodium,  Chloride  of,    .         .  157 

hyposulphite,      .         .  164 

Solubility  of  India-rubber  .  181 

Soluble  glass,        .        ,         .  164 

Sorel's  compound,         .        .  104 

Specific  gravity  of  rubber,  .  213 

Spermaceti,           .         .         .  133 

Spirits  of  turpentine,    .        .  193 

wine  in  coagulation,  45 

Spruce  gum,          .        .        .  132 

Stabilit,          .  104 

Stamp  rubber,      ...  41 

Starch,           ....  81 

Stationers'  rubber  goods,    .  36 

Stearic  acid,          .        .        .  164 

pitch,           .        .        .  133 

Stearine,        .        .        .         132,  179 


Stibnite,        .        .        .  -      .   '..      81 
Stick  lac,       ....  131 
Sticks  (  crude  rubber  ),         .  21 
Stockholm  tar,      .         ,         .  133 
Storax,  Balsam  of,        .         .  116 
Strips  (crude  rubber ),        .  17 
Sublimed  lead,      .        .      .  .  81 
Substitute,   Black  German,  90 
Corn  oil,      ...  91 
Dankwerth's        Rus- 
sian,        .        .        .  91 
Tong  oil,     ...  98 
Substitutes,  Analyses  of  oil,  88 
rubber,  223 
Peroxide,  95 
Soap,        ',.        .        .  97 
for  Gutta-percha,       .    87,  99 
hard  rubber,         .  87 
India-rubber,        .  87 
Sugar  of  lead,       .         .        .81,  164 
Sulphate  of  copper,     .        .  165 
lead,         ,         .  8 1 
lime,         .     •   .  82 
soda,        .        .  164 
zinc,         .        .  82 
Sulphide,  Barium,        .        .  54 
of  alumina,         .        .  164 
antimony,  Crimson.  145 
lead,         .         .        .58,  141 
uranium,          .        .  141 
zinc,         ...  59 
Sulphur,        ....  59 
Amorphous,        .        .  58 
Balsam  of,          ..'        .  59.  116 
Chloride  of,         .        .  55 
fumes  in  coagulation,  44 
Honeycomb,       .        .  57 
in  rubber  substitutes  224 
Liver  of,      .        .        .  58 
lotum,          .        .        .  58 
Milk  of,       .        .        .  58 
Proto-chloride  of,  58 
Sulphuret  of  antimony,  Gol- 
den,    .        .        .        .  56 
lead,  artificial,    .         ,.  54 
Sulphuric  acid,     .                 .  165 
Susu-poko  gum,   ...  33 

Tabernoemontana  Thursioni,  30 

Talaing  rubber,    ...  33 

Talc,  French,        ...  82 

Talite, 82 

Tallow,           .         .         .         .  180 

Talotalo  gum,       ...  30 

Tamatave  rubber,         .        .  22 

Tannic  acid,          .         .         .  166 

Tannin,         ....  166 

Tar 133 

Oil  of,          ...  177 


260 


INDEX. 


Tar,  Stockholm    ...  133 

Tartar,  Cream  of,         .         ,  158 

Tartaric  acid,        .        .        .  167 

Tava  rubber,         .        ,        .  21 

Terra-verte,           .        .        .  148 
Terry  (H.   L.)  on    specific 

gravity  of  rubber,      .  214 

Textiloid,      ....  97 

Theskelon  cement,       .        .  109 

Thimble  rubbers.          .         .  17,  21 

Thion, 192 

Thomas's  (Joseph)  vulcan- 
ized process,       .        .  56 
Thomson  (Sir    William)  on 
effect    of    metals  on 

rubber,     .        .        .  209 

Thyme,  Oil  of,      .        .        .  177 

Tire  manufacture,          .         .  39 
Tires,    Pneumatic,    Testing 

of,        .        .        ,        .  216 
Tirucalli  gum,      ...  30 
Tolu  balsam,         .        ....  134 
Toluene,        .        .        .        .  193 
Tong  oil  substitute,      .        .  98 
Tongues  (crude  rubber),      .  17 
Torres  coagulation  system,  45 
Touchpong  gum,           .         .  29 
Tremenol,     .         .         .         .  98 
Trinidad  asphal^          .        .  134 
Tripoli,          ....  82 
Trotter's    (Jonathan),    vul- 
canizing process,        .  49 
Tumaco  rubber,    .        .  15 
Tungstate  of  ammonia,       .  167 
soda,    ....  167 
Tungstic  acid,       .        .        .  167 
Tuno  gum,    ....  28 
Turpentine,           .        .         134,  180 
Oil  of,          ...  191 
rubber,        ...  98 
Spirits  of,    .         .         .  193 
Tuxpam  strip  rubber,  .         .  15 
Twists  (crude  rubber),         .  17,  1 8 

UELLE  rubber,  .  ,  .  20 

Ultramarine,  Blue,  .  • .  142 

Green,  .  .  .  149 

Umber,  .  .  .  .  146 

Burnt,  ...  64 
Unusual  ingredients  in  dry 

mixing,  ...  84 

Upper  Congo  rubber,  .  20 

Upriver  Para  rubber,  .  1 1 

Urostigma  Gamelleira,  .  26 

VALVES,  Preservation  of 

rubber  in,  .  .  .  205 

Vapor  process  of  rubber 

cure,  ....  208 


Vaseline,  .  .  .  .  180 
Vegetable  charcoal,  .  .  66 
Vegetable  pitch  .  .  .  134 
Vegetaline,  .  . '-••'*  .  104 
Venetian  red,  ...  145 
Venice  turpentine,  .  .  191 
Vermilion,  ....  144 
Versuvian  white,  .  .  39 
Viscoid,  .  .  .  .  104 
Viscose,  ,  104 
Vitriol,  Oil  of,  .  .  .  162 
Vitrite,  .  .  .  .  104 
Volenite,  .  .  .  98 
Voltit,  .  ,  .'.'.'...;  98 
Vulcabeston  ,  .  .105 
Vulcanine,  .  .  .  •>  59,  109 
Vulcanization  of  Gutta-per- 
cha, .  .  .  241 
India-rubber,  .  ,  .  49 
Vulcanized  fiber,  .  .  105 
oil,  ....  180 
rubber,  Analyses  of,  215 
Vulcoleine,  ....  194 


WALNUT  oil,          ...      ,  180 

Wamba  rubber,    .        .        .  21 

Washing  rubber,          .        .  45 
Waterproof       fabric,         A 

porous,     ,        .    •-   ^  203 

glue,             ...  99 
Watertown,   Mass.,  tests  of 

rubber  goods  at,         .  218 
Wax,  Carnauba,  .        .        .  118 
Waxes     in     rubber      com- 
pounds,      .        .        .  115 
Weber  (Carl  Otto)  on  analy- 
ses of  rubber,  .        222,  225 
on  resins  in  rubber,    .  182 
West  Indian  rubber,    .        .  15 
Whaleite,      .  109 
Wheat  flour,          ...  82 
"  White  extract  "  reclaimed 

rubber,        .        ,        .  113 
White,  Barium,    .        .        .  138 
Calcium,      .        .        .65 
Calamine,  .        .        .  138 
colors  for  rubber,       .  137 
Fard's  Spanish,          .  139 
Griffith's,    ...  139 
Whiting,        ....  83 
Wilhoft's  (Dr.  F.)     vulcan- 
izing process,      .        .  54 
Winthrop  gum,     ...  99 
Woodite,        ....  109 
Wood  spirit,          .         .         .  194 
Wormwood,  Oil  of,      .         .  177 
Wray's     (Leonard)       com- 
pound,        .        .        .  105 


INDEX. 


261 


XANTHORRHEA  gum,     . 
X-rays  for  analyzing  Gut- 
ta-percha,   . 
Xyloidiu, 
Xylol 

134 

237 
134 
194 

Yellow  Gamboge, 
gutta, 
ochre,          .    ' 
pigments,    . 

Xylonite, 

YALE  blue,     . 
Yellow,  Arsenic,          * 
Aurelian,    .        . 
Barberry,    . 
Cadmium,  . 
Chrome, 

"4,  134 

..       142 
147 
147 
147 
147 
148 

ZAPOTINE, 
Zinc,  Borate  of,    . 
Carbonate  of, 
Chloride  of, 
Iodide  of,    . 
Oxide  of,    . 
Sulphide  of, 
White, 

147 
29 

147 
146 

32 
188 
138 
158 
160 
137 
138 
137 


AD  VERTISEMENTS. 


We  have  the  largest  and  most  up-to-date  factory — in  our  line 

— in  the  world.     No  better  goods  are  made 

f 
than  we  produce. 


English  Cliffstone  Paris  White 

("Westminster"  Brand), 

WHITING. 


All  Grades. 


We  give  special  attention  to  the  preparation 
of  dry  and  finely  bolted  Paris  White  and 
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of  the  large  manufacturers  in  any  line.  «  « 


Mail  samples  will  be 
sent  upon  request.  « 


THE 

H.  F.  TAINTOR  MFG. 

Co. 


No.   101   BEEKMAN  ST., 
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AD  VERTISEMENTS. 


STEPHEN  P.  SHARPLES, 

Analytical  and  Consulting  Chemist. 

Tests  and  Analyses  made  of  Reclaimed  Rubber,  Substitutes, 
Rubber  Colors,  Compounding  Ingredients,  Oils,  Etc. 

Analyses  of  Vulcanized  Rubbers.    Water  Analyses. 
13  Broad  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 


For  Lustre  Sheetings,  Army  Blankets 
and  Surface  Clothing, 


Water 

Varnish, 


In  use  since  1884. 


The  Best,  Cheapest,  and  Host  Durable  Varnish  for  Rubber 

Covered  Fabrics  in  Existence. 
Testimonials  from  Leading  Rubber  flanufacturers. 


SAMUEL  H.  CABLE, 

JAMAICA  PLAIN,  MASS. 


J. 

TREHTOU,  N.  J. 

MANUFACTURER    OF 

RUBBER    SUBSTITUTES 

AND 

CHLORIDE  OF  SULPHUR. 

Samples 


ADVERTISEMENTS,  in 


Highest  Grade 


RECLAIMED 
RUBBER. 


Prices  and  Samples  on  Application 


The  Joseph  Stokes 
Rubber  Co., 

TRENTON,  NEW  JERSEY,  U.  5.  A. 


E.  E.  BUCKLETON, 

General  rianager. 


iv  A  D  VER  TISEMENTS. 


ROBERT  B.  BAIRD, 

CRUDE   RUBBER,  RECLAIMED  RUBBER,  GUTTA  PERCHA, 

AND  RUBBER  MANUFACTURERS'  SUPPLIES. 
67   CHAUNCY  STREET,  BOSTON,    MASS. 

TELEPHONE   NO.   1212  OXFORD. 
REPRESENTATIVE  FOR  NEW  ENGLAND  AND  CANADA 


OTTO  C.  MAYER  &  Co.,  LOEWENTHAL  RUBBER  COMPANY, 

CRUDE   RUBBER.  AND  RECLAIMED  RUBBER. 


AD  VERTISEMENTS. 


ESTABLISHED    1883. 


LOEWENTHAL   RUBBER   COMPANY, 


(Successors  to  LOEWENTHAL  &  MORGANSTEKN.) 


HIGHEST  GRADES. 

Office  and  Factory,  144-154  Provost  St., 
JERSEY  CITY,  N.  J.,  U.  S.  A. 


Benzols  and  naphthas 

Made  from  coal  tar.  Special  grades  especially  prepared  tor 
use  in  manufacturing  rubber  goods  and  cements.  Most 
efficient  for  solvent  purposes,  and  for  the  cold  vulcaniza- 
tion of  rubber.  Also  makers  of 

Carbolic  flcid 

Crystals,  liquid  and  crude,  for  the  preservation  of  rubber  fabrics. 


Chemical  Department, 

BARRETT  MANUFACTURING  CO., 

1205  Land  Title  Building,  PHILADELPHIA. 

WM.  H.  SCHEEL,  HENRY  M.  WOOLF, 

PRESIDENT.  VICE  PRES.  AND  GEN-L  M-G-R. 
GEORGE  H.  LINCKS,  ROBERT  C.  BAIRD, 

TREASURER.  SECRETARY, 

THE   PREMIER  TRIPOLITE  COMPANY, 

OFFICE.  159  MAIDEN  LANE, 
NRW    YORK,         -         NEW    YORK. 

Tripoli  of  Superior  Quality  mined  and  milled  at  our  own  works.     Special   At- 
tention given  to  the  requirements  of  Rubber  Goods'  workers.      Crude, 

Ground,  and  Calcined   Bolted  Tripoli  furnished  in  any  quantity. 
g^  Samples  sent  on  application. 


vi  A  D  VER  TI SEME  NTS. 


RAYMOND  RUBBER  COMPANY, 

MANUFACTURERS    OF   THE   FINEST    GRADES    OF 

MECHANICAL  AND  CHEMICAL 

RECLAIMED  RUBBER 

For  Manufacturing  Purposes. 

Office  and  Factory,  -  -  TITUSVILLE,  NEW  JERSEY. 


P.  &  B.  Specialties  for 

Rubber  Manufacture. 

RUBEROID. — An  artificial  gum  used  as  a  substitute  for  India  Rubber,  works 
perfectly  in  hard  or  soft  compounds,  dry  or  wet  heats. 

RUBERINE. — A  liquid  similar  to  rubber  insulation,  largely  used  in  spreader 
compounds. 

P.  &  B.  INSULATING  TAPE.— Is  water,  acid  and  alkali  proof.  Is  very  sticky 
and  never  cracks  or  hardens.  Is  a  perfect  insulator. 

P.  &  B.  ELECTRICAL  COflPOUND.— Used  for  all  kinds  of  electrical  coating. 
Penetrates  deeply,  dries  quickly.  Absolutely  water  proof  and  acid  proof. 

P.  &  B.  ARMATURE  FIELD  AND  COIL  VARNISH.— Is  elastic,  moisture  proof, 
and  a  perfect  insulator.  Has  a  hard,  glossy  surface,  and  will  stand  300  degrees 
Fahr.  before  it  shows  signs  of  softening. 

P.  &  B.  PRESERVATIVE  PAINT  and  P.  &  B.  INSULATING  PAPER. 


THE  STANDARD  PAINT  COMPANY, 

81  AND  83  JOHN  STREET,  NEW  YORK. 


PURE 

SOFT 
SULPHUR, 


ESTABLISHED    1841.  INCORPORATED  189T. 


Bergen  Port 

Sulphur  Works 

ORIGINAL  MANUFACTURERS  OF 

Pure  Soft  Sulphur 

PREPARED  ESPECIALLY  FOR 

Rubber  Manufacturers. 

T.  &  S,  C.  WHITE  CO., 

28  Burling  Slip,  -          -  NEW  YORK. 


A  D  VER  TI SEME  NTS. 


VII 


TYPKE  &  KING, 


I  ndia= Rubber 
Chemists 


flanufacturers. 


...AND... 


Chemical 


Golden  and  Crimson  Sulphurets  of  Antimony. 
Black  "Hypo,"  very  fine  and  uniform. 

India-Rubber  Substitutes,  White,  Amber  and 
Black.    Eight  Grades. 

Plumbagine  for  Oil-Resisting  Valves. 

Red  Pigment.     Scarlet  Stain.     Vegetable  Black. 
Yellow  Pigment.    Zinc  Sulphide. 

Samples  and  prices  on  application. 

Instruction  pamphlet  written  especially  for  rubber  manufacturers, 
FREE. 


OFFICES: 
7  JEFFREYS  SQUARE, 

ST.  MARY  AXE., 
'    LONDON, ENGLAND. 


AGENT   IN    UNITED    STATES: 

JOSEPH  CANTOR, 

149-151    CHURCH   STREET, 

NEW  YORK. 


vin  A  D  VER  TISEMENTS. 


GR1E 


GUTTA  PEW,  BALAIA  nvrnnnn  [SUBSTITUTES 

!  TUNO,  AHA,  U  I    U  U  L  P   ^EMIGALS, 

ICHICIUC.  illiflDDIl  COLORS, 

I  NEW  GUMS  TESTED.  "  **  w"              *  Of  CEMENTS. 

Representing  Lufbery  &  Chardonnier,  Chauny,  France, 

Manufacturers  of  Rubber  Substitutes  and  Antimony. 

HEINRY  SMVTHEI, 

Telephone  No.   1443  Broad.  -  3  SOUTH  WILLIAft  ST.,  N.  Y. 

RUBBER  SUP3  F>  LIES. 

PAD/1  "  £  H  P  TI Q  "  trade  mark  for  our  ordinary  grades  of  black  and  white  substitutes,  which  are 
I  H  IV  H  rHullU,  largely  used  by  manufacturers  of  bicycle  tires,  rubber  clothing,  druggists' 
sundries  and  mechanical  goods. 

Asbestine,  Asbestos  Pulp,  Barytes,  Blue  Lead,  Black  and  White  Substitutes, 
Bicycle  Cements  (all  kinds),  Carbon  Bisulphide,  Chloride  of  Sulphur,  French 
Chalk,  Golden  Sulphide  Antimony,  Lime,  Magnesia,  Plumbago,  Bed  Oxide, 
Shoddy  and  Ground  Waste,  Soapstone,  Sulphur,  Talc,  Vermilion,  Zinc  Oxide, 
Zinc  Sulphide.  Send  for  Samples  and  Price. 

IP.    O-A-IR/nilR,    BELL    OOV 
CRUDE   RUBBER,  CHEMICALS  AND  SUBSTITUTES, 

150    NASSAU   STREET, 

Telephone  Number,  3906  Cortlandt.  T^v"1 

Cable  Address,  Bellsmith.    Xieber's  Code  Used.  ^^ 

ESTABLISHED   1848. 


TOCH    BROTHERS, 


IANUFACTURERS  AND  IMPORTERS  OF 


CHEMICALS  UNO  PIGMENTS 

For  the  Rubber  and  Allied  Industries. 

Oleum  White,  Special  Vermilion,  Lake  Base,  Gloss  White, 
Zalk,  Rubberite,  Colors  and  Specialties. 

468,  470,  472  West  Broadway,  NEW  YORK. 

Bisulphide    of   Carbon 

and    Chloride    of   Sulphur, 

Especially  prepared  for  India  Rubber  manufacture. 

Having  had  20  years'  experience  in  the  manufacture  of  the  above 
articles  ;  owing  to  the  large  sales  during  the  past  year,  and  on  account  of 
the  growing  demand  resulting  from  its  good  results  for  cold  cure,  vaporiz- 
ing, and  for  making  rubber  substitute,  I  have  reduced  prices  below  com- 
petition. 

GEIO.    W.    SPEIAIGHT, 

IN/lamuifsictLJrir-ig    Chemist, 
10©    FU-LTOKT    ST.,  -  -  1-TE-W    YOR,K,    JST.    Y 


AD  VERTISEMENTS. 


IX 


...ARIAL    BRANDS... 

RUBBER  SUBSTITUTE  AND 

....CHLORIDE  OF  SULPHUR. 

Superior  Qualities,  made  from  best  materials  and  by  up-to-date  methods. 

White    Substitute.      Black    Substitute.      flono  Chloride   Sulphur,  for  making 

White  Rubber  Substitute.      Proto  Chloride  Sulphur,  for  curing  purposes. 

Bi=Chloride  Sulphur,  for  making  Brown  Rubber  Substitute. 
Also  Waxes  and  Earths.  Trial  orders  solicited. 


159  Maiden  Lane  and  37  Fletcher  Street,  NEW  YORK,  NEW  YORK. 


Morris  &  Company, 


ESTABLISHED    1882. 
IN/IAISIUF-AOTURERS     OR 


Qroveville  Hills  Cotton  Duck 
and  Tire  Fabric. 


We  make  a  specialty  of 

tiigb  Grade  Belting 

<">d  RO$e  DUCK 


For  the  manufacture  of  Mechan- 
ical Rubber  Goods  ;  also, 

Cire  fabric, 

Made   from   the   finest  grades   of 

combed  Sea  Island,  Egyptian, 

and  Peeler  Yarns. 

R.    O.    VARDVILLE,    IN.    J.,     U.    S.    A. 


Machinery. 


In   case  of  a  break   down  in  your 
plant,    and    you    want    an    Engine, 
Boiler,    or   Steam    Pump    QUICK, 
write  or  telegraph  us.      Large  stock 
of  Boilers,  Engines,  Lathes,  Pumps,  Dynamos,  Etc.,  on  hand. 

SECOND-HAND  MACHINERY  ONLY. 

Will  take  old  Machinery  in  trade. 

SCHULTZ   &   CO., 

ROTHSCHILD  BUILDING.          14  South  Broad  St.          PHILADELPHIA,  PENN'A. 


A  D  VER  TISEMENTS. 


HYDRAULIC 

AND  KNUCKLE  JOINT 

STEAM  PRESSES. 


Write  for  Prices. 


BOOMER  I 

336  West  Water  Street, 


SYRACUSE,  N.  Y. 


RUBBER     IS     USELESS 

Until  it  is  worked  up  into  some  marketable  article.  To  do  this 
machinery  is  required,  and  the  better  the  machinery,  the  better  and 
cheaper  will  be  the  finished  product.  The 

BOYLE 

TUBING 

MACHINES 

Are  model  machines,  with  high  produc- 
tive capacity.     They  greatly  reduce  the 
cost    of    making    hose,    tubing,     and    a 
great  variety  of  mechanical  goods. 
#5~  SEND  FOR  CATALOGUE. 

JOHN  ROYLE  &   SONS, 

PATEBSON,  N.  J.,  U.  S.  A. 


AD  VERTISEMENTS. 


XI 


PARREL  FOUNDRY  &  MACHINE  Co., 


ANSONIA,  CONN.,  U.  S.  A. 

ESTABLISHED  1848. 


LARGEST   MANUFACTURERS  IN  THE  WORLD  OF 

RUBBER   MACHINEIRV. 


24-INCH  4-ROLL  RUBBER  CALENDER,   BOX   HOUSING,  PATENTED. 

CALENDERS 

Of  all  kinds  with  rolls  up  to  36"  diameter  and  160"  face. 

Washers,  Refiners,  Sheeters,  Crackers,  Mixers 
and  Grinders,  all  Sizes, 

With  chilled  or  sand  rolls  up  to  22    and  26 "x84",  with  or  without 
roller  bearings. 

HYDRAULIC  BELT  PRESSES,   TWO   OR  MORE  PLATENS, 
WITH  PATENT  HYDRAULIC  STRETCHERS. 

Hydraulic,  Multiple,  Heel  and    Screw    Presses       Pumps,    Accumulators,    Etc. 

Bolls,  Steel,  Chilled  Iron  and  Dry  Sand.     Belt  Slitters,  Bias  Cutting 

Machines,  Hose  Wrapping1  and  Belt  Folding-  Machines. 

LINOLEUM    MACHINERY. 

Machine-moulded  Gears  up  to  10-inch  pitch. 


xii  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


RUBBER  WORKING  MACHINERY 

OF  ALL  KINDS. 
Oldest   and    Largest    Builders    of    Rubber  Mill    Machinery  in  the  U.  5. 


BIRMINGHAM    IRON    FOUNDRY, 

DERBY,  CONN.,  U.  S.  A. 


A  HAND-BOOK  FOR  WORKS  MANAGERS. 


THE  COMPLETE  COST-KEEPER 

Some  Original  Systems  of 

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xiv  ADVERTISEMENTS. 


,,Gummi-Zeitung" 

Dresden-Blasewitz. 

Haus  Goodyear. 


FACHBLATT   FUR   DIE 


Grummi-,  G-uttapercha- 

nnd  Asbestindustrie. 


SOWIE  DEREN 


Hilfs-  und  Nebenbranchen. 

ORGAN  FUR  DEN  GESAMMTEN  OHIRURGISOHEN, 
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Rrobon  urn  morn    Gratis. 


ADVERTISEMENTS.  xv 


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r,EC   18  1933 

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